Fly switching by Asian elephants: tool use to control parasites
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Animal tool use: current definitions and an updated comprehensive catalog
Bentley‐Condit, V. K., & Smith (2010) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/000579509x12512865686555 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Hart, B. (2011) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0092 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Self-citationBiology of Blood-Sucking Insects
Lehane, M. J. (1991) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-011-7953-9 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Behavioural defense against parasites: interaction with parasite invasiveness
Hart, B. L. (1994) · Parasitology · doi:10.1017/s0031182000085140 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Self-citationHow Mammals Stay Healthy in Nature: The Evolution of Behaviours to Avoid Parasites and Pathogens
Hart, B. L., & Hart, L. A. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0205 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Cognitive behaviour in Asian elephants: use and modification of branches for fly switching
Hart, B. L., Hart, L. A., McCoy, M., & Sarath, C. R. (2001) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1815 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Self-citationParasite avoidance behaviours in aquatic environments
Behringer, D. C., Karvonen, A., & Bojko, J. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0202 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Evolution of pathogen and parasite avoidance behaviours
Sarabian, C., Curtis, V., & McMullan, R. (2018) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0256 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Elephant cognition in primate perspective
Byrne, R. W., Bates, L. A., & Moss, C. J. (2009) · Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews · doi:10.3819/ccbr.2009.40009 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Why do we want to think humans are different?
Chapman, C. A., & Huffman, M. A. (2018) · Animal Sentience · doi:10.51291/2377-7478.1358 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Today we know that tools are also used by many non-primate species such as elephants (Hart and Hart, 1994), Caledonia crows (van Casteren, 2017), African grey parrots (Pepperberg, 2004), sea otters (Hall and Schaller, 1964; Fujii et al., 2014), rodents (Nagano and Aoyama, 2017), octopuses (Finn et…”
BackgroundHaptically creating affordances: The user-tool interface.
Wagman, J. B., & Carello, C. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.9.3.175 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“When the inertial properties of an object cannot be altered by adjusting or modifying the object itself (see Hart & Hart, 1994; Hart et al., 2001; Weir et al., 2002), perceivers–actors can modulate the inertial properties of the hand–object system by changing their grasp on the object—by changing…”
BackgroundInfluentialEvidence of means–end behavior in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
Irie-Sugimoto, N., Kobayashi, T., Sato, T., & Hasegawa, T. (2008) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-007-0126-z · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“T. Kobayashi NTT Communication Science Laboratories, NTT Corporation, Kyoto, Japan and captive Asian elephants use sticks as tools to fend oV Xies and to scratch their own bodies (e.g. Hart and Hart 1994).”
BackgroundMethodCalves Use an Automated Brush and a Hanging Rope When Pair-Housed
Zobel, G., Neave, H. W., Henderson, H. V., & Webster, J. R. (2017) · Animals · doi:10.3390/ani7110084 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“In addition to oral manipulation, contact with the rope over the rest of the body may discourage fly activity; this behaviour has been noted in elephants that frequently use vegetation to displace insects [26].”
BackgroundA Tool for Every Job: Assessing the Need for a Universal Definition of Tool Use
Crain, B. J., Giray, T., & Abramson, C. I. (2013) · International Journal of Comparative Psychology · doi:10.46867/ijcp.2013.26.04.03 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Doherty, J., & Ruehle, B. (2020) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2020.564343 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…are seldom predated upon (except perhaps for small juveniles), have evolved the avoidance behavior of “fly switching,” in which an individual fashions a swatting tool out of a tree branch to decrease the risk of getting bitten or infected by parasitic flies (Hart and Hart, 1994; Hart et al., 2001).”
BackgroundThe Asian elephants-driver partnership: the drivers' perspective
Hart, L. A. (1994) · Applied Animal Behaviour Science · doi:10.1016/0168-1591(94)90070-1 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationIs painting by elephants in zoos as enriching as we are led to believe?
English, M., Kaplan, G., & Rogers, L. J. (2014) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.471 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Elephants in Thailand: Determinants of Health and Welfare in Working Populations
Chatkupt, T. T., Sollod, A. E., & Sarobol, S. (1999) · Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science · doi:10.1207/s15327604jaws0203_2 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Yack, J. E., Raven, B. H., Léveillée, M. B., & Naranjo, M. (2020) · Integrative and Comparative Biology · doi:10.1093/icb/icaa097 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Elephants were observed to repel flies by us-ing branches to swat them away from more inaccessible areas of their body (Hart and Hart 1994).”
BackgroundPlasticity in antiparasite behaviours and its suggested role in invasion biology
Hughes, D. P., & Cremer, S. (2007) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.12.025 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Examples include tool use by elephants to swat flies (Hart & Hart 1994), cooperative behaviour among social insects when quarantining either infected individuals or the parasites themselves (Jeanne 1979; Epsky & Capinera 1988; Neumann et al. 2001), nest guarding by wasps and birds to prevent…”
BackgroundElephant psychology: What we know and what we would like to know
Irie, N., & Hasegawa, T. (2009) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5884.2009.00404.x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“They reported that elephants sometimes modify sticks by breaking them into halves when they are too long, or by taking leaves off branches when they are too leafy (Hart & Hart, 1994).”
BackgroundEffects of Hormones on Behavioral Defenses Against Parasites
Hart, B. L. (1997) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-5983-2_11 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationIntegrating Concepts of Physiological and Behavioral Resistance to Parasites
Amoroso, C. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.635607 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“…selection may be based on detectable yet indirect cues: for example, avoiding feces (Sarabian and MacIntosh, 2015; Amoroso et al., 2017), detecting general signs of disease in conspecifics (Curtis et al., 2004; Paciência et al., 2019), or swatting away insect vectors (Hart and Hart, 1994).”
BackgroundTheory of Mind and Insight in Chimpanzees, Elephants, and Other Animals?
Nissani, M. (2004) · Comparative Vertebrate Cognition · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-8913-0_7 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Behavioral Effects of Parasitism in Animals
Ramnath, K.-M. N. (2009) · Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine · doi:10.1053/j.jepm.2009.10.004 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Falótico, T. (2006) · doi:10.11606/d.47.2006.tde-26072006-120932 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Elefantes já foram observados utilizando galhos para remover ectoparasitas, para alcançar fontes de alimento distantes e para limpar as orelhas (Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993; Hart & Hart, 1994).”
BackgroundThe Functions of Human Touch: An Integrative Review
Saluja, S., Croy, I., & Stevenson, R. J. (2024) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-024-00464-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“For instance, Asian elephants have been shown to grasp and swing branches and vegetation against their body, so to prevent and dislodge biting flies (Hart & Hart, 1994).”
Can Asian Elephants Use Water as a Tool in the Floating Object Task?
Barrett, L. P., & Benson-Amram, S. (2020) · Animal Behavior and Cognition · doi:10.26451/abc.07.03.04.2020 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Given elephants’ use of their trunk to suck and dispense water (Kier & Smith, 1985; Smith & Kier, 1989), use of tools (Hart & Hart, 1994; Hart et al., 2001; Mizuno et al., 2016; Wickler & Seibt, 1997), and demonstration of insightful problem solving (Foerder et al., 2011), we expected that…”
Evolution of the Elephant Brain: A Paradox between Brain Size and Cognitive Behavior
Hart, B. L., & Hart, L. A. (2007) · Evolution of Nervous Systems · doi:10.1016/b0-12-370878-8/00343-8 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationDog Stick Chewing: An Overlooked Instance of Tool Use?
Brooks, J., & Yamamoto, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.577100 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…as branches for fly swatting and small sticks for self-scratching (Douglas-Hamilton and Douglas-Hamilton, 1978; ChevalierSkolnikoff and Liska, 1993; Hart and Hart, 1994), and everincreasing examples of tool use in birds, including the insect fishing probes of New Caledonian crows (Corvus…”
BackgroundPredation of a Bat by American Crows, Corvus brachyrhynchos
Lefevre, K. L. (2005) · The Canadian Field-Naturalist · doi:10.22621/cfn.v119i3.156 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Hope, S. F., Willgohs, K. R., Dittakul, S., & Plotnik, J. M. (2025) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/s13420-024-00655-y · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“In the wild, both African and Asian elephants have been observed using tools (Chevalier-Skolnikoff & Liska, 1993; Hart & Hart, 1994).”
Cognitive Abilities in Elephants
Bates, L. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108131797.003 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Insect-repelling behavior in goitered gazelles: responses to biting fly attack
Blank, D. A. (2020) · European Journal of Wildlife Research · doi:10.1007/s10344-020-01382-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…to repel and dislodge biting insects, such as tail switching, ear flicking, head shaking, foot stamping, and muscle twitching (Hart 1990; Mooring et al. 2007); and elephants have been seen to use fallen tree branches for swatting at flies on their backs and sides (Hart and Hart 1994; Moore 2002).”
BackgroundPossible Tool Use by Beavers, Castor canadensis, in a Northern Ontario Watershed
Barnes, D. M. (2005) · The Canadian Field-Naturalist · doi:10.22621/cfn.v119i3.157 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ubuntu in Elephant Communities
Wrage, B., Papadopoulos, D., & Benz-Schwarzburg, J. (2023) · Journal of the American Philosophical Association · doi:10.1017/apa.2023.24 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Fowler, M. E. (2006) · doi:10.1002/9780470344484.ch12 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Do Asian elephants plan for mutually-exclusive outcomes?
Hope, S. F., Dittakul, S., Yindee, M., Angkawanish, T., & Plotnik, J. M. (2025) · Animal Cognition · doi:10.1007/s10071-025-02009-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…Benson-Amram 2021; Jacobson et al. 2022, 2023) and insightful (Foerder et al. 2011) problem-solving, tool-use (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Hart and Hart 1994; Hart et al. 2001; Foerder et al. 2011; Barrett and Benson-Amram 2020), and body/self-awareness (Plotnik et al. 2006, 2010; Dale…”
Consumer responses to infectious disease cues: an integrative framework and research agenda
Affonso, F. M. (2025) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-01-2024-0070 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Intelligence and embodiment: A statistical mechanics approach
Chinea, A., & Korutcheva, E. (2013) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2013.01.007 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Elephants – Studying Cognition in the African Savannah
Bates, L. A. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108333191.010 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kultura kod ne-ljudskih životinja i evolucijsko podrijetlo ljudske kulture
Škorić, M., & Kišjuhas, A. (2020) · Filozofska istraživanja · doi:10.21464/fi40209 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Why cod don't like to sunbathe: Quantity and quality in the animal kingdom
Jung, C. (2019) · Animal Sentience · doi:10.51291/2377-7478.1457 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Today we know many more species use something like tools (Hall & Schaller, 1964; Hart & Hart, 1994).”
BackgroundMethodBreed, M., & Moore, J. (2022) · Animal Behavior · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819558-1.00010-5
Sheets‐Johnstone, M. (2021) · World Archaeology · doi:10.1080/00438243.2021.1993991 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…the tool-making and tool-using of chimpanzees in fashioning a stick for termite fishing (Teleki 1974), of elephants in using branches to swat flies (Hart and Hart 1994; Hart et al. 2001; see also Shuchat 2018), not to mention the kinetic creativity of beavers using logs and more in building dams,…”
Method(2004) · Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.editionsmsh.7121
(2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816208-8.00022-1
Zaman, N., Rizwan, M., Sultana, K., et al. (2023) · doi:10.1002/9781119878063.ch3
Arvidsson, J. (2011) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology)
Large brains and cognition: Where do elephants fit in?
Hart, B. L., Hart, L. A., & Pinter-Wollman, N. (2008) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.05.012 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“More recently, studies have documented the efficacy of fly switching in repelling flies (Hart and Hart, 1994) and the modification of branches to use as switches (Hart et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
- Authors
- Hart, B. L., & Hart, L. A.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Venue
- Animal Behaviour
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1994-07
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 35-45
- ISSN
- 0003-3472 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2003220642
- Cited by
- 53
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 1 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 2.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Animal Behaviour (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Keywords
- Asian elephant, tool use, parasite control, captive elephants, stereotypy, body cooling, behavioural function, switching rate
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
