Can Asian Elephants Use Water as a Tool in the Floating Object Task?

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Both demonstrators were younger than some of their observers.

“both demonstrators were younger than some of their observers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All subjects investigated (touched) the apparatus containing a marshmallow on their first test trial.

“All subjects investigated (touched) the apparatus containing a marshmallow on their first test trial.”

May combine two claims.

Exploratory diversity was best predicted by Location (not Condition), with a trend toward a significant difference between NZP and OKC elephants.

“Exploratory diversity was also best predicted by Location (Table 2) (not Condition).There was a trend toward a significant difference between NZP and OKC elephants in their mean exploratory diversity (z = -1.917,n = 12, p = .055).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Shanthi and Chandra always ate the marshmallow reward after obtaining it from the tube.

“Shanthi and Chandra always ate the marshmallow reward after obtaining it from the tube.”

May combine two claims.

Observer and baseline elephants did not differ in their latency to touch the apparatus or their exploratory diversity.

“Thus, observer and baseline elephants did not differ in their latency to touch the apparatus or their exploratory diversity, contrary to our prediction.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

At least one Asian elephant (Shanthi) is capable of using water as a tool to solve the floating object task.

“we found that at least one Asian elephant is capable of using water as a tool to solve a problem.”

May combine two claims.

Shanthi began solving the task in her first trial and fully solved it in her second trial.

“In this study, Shanthi began solving the task in her very first trial and fully solved the task in her second trial.”

May combine two claims.

Shanthi and Chandra added water a greater number of times in the Dry control than in the Top control trial (mean 5.5 vs 0.5 times), but this difference could not be verified statistically due to small sample size.

“Averaged together, Shanthi and Chandra added water a greater number of times in the Dry control than in the Top control trial (x̄Dry= 5.5 times, x̄Top = 0.5 times), but we could not verify this difference statistically due to our small sample size.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Elephants could not fit their trunk inside the tube, turn the tube upside down, or move the tube to reach the marshmallow.

“Elephants could not fit their trunk inside of the tube, turn the tube upside down, or move the tube to reach the marshmallow.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Successful individuals were presented with a dry apparatus with a marshmallow at the bottom and then a baited apparatus filled to the top with water to test for further understanding.

“To test for further understanding of the task, after the completion of individual and demonstration trials, successful individuals were presented with a dry apparatus with a marshmallow at the bottom (i.e., subjects could not rely on having a cue of water and more water needed to be added than in regular test trials) (as in Hanus et al., 2011;Mendes et al., 2007;Renner et al., 2017).”

• cites Hanus et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Mendes et al., 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Renner et al., 2017Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Subjects were not familiar with the apparatus prior to testing.

“Subjects were not familiar with the apparatus prior to testing.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Half of all subjects (all OKC elephants, n = 6) received one trial of a dry, unbaited tube before any test trials to assess individual tendency to add water to novel items.

“Half of all subjects (all OKC elephants, n = 6) received one trial of a dry, unbaited tube (i.e., a tube without the marshmallow) before any test trials to assess individual tendency to add water to novel items (Figure 2).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: In the dry, unbaited control trial, elephants would not add water to the tube because they would not smell a food reward in the tube.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The floating object task has been tested with only highly visual species (i.e., primates).

“The floating object task, in particular, has been tested with only highly visual species (i.e., primates).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas, humans, and several corvid species are capable of insightful learning and tool use.

“The results of these studies demonstrate that orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas, humans, and several corvid species are capable of insightful learning and tool use.”

• cites Mendes et al., 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Hanus et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Bird & Emery, 2009a, bNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Social learning in elephants has rarely been documented aside from anecdotes.

“Despite elephants' complex social structure and extensive communication, social learning in elephants has rarely been documented aside from anecdotes (Byrne et al., 2009).”

• cites Byrne et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The placement of the tube was carefully planned with keepers to maximize viewing conditions, and the authors were confident that observers could see the tube and demonstrator if facing during demonstration.

“The placement of the tube was carefully planned with keepers to maximize viewing conditions for observation; we were confident that observers could see the tube and the demonstrator if they were facing the demonstrator during the demonstration (Figure 1).”

May combine two claims.

Elephant visual acuity is generally thought to be moderate, about 4.5 times less than human visual acuity, with dichromatic and most likely alternating monocular and binocular vision.

“Elephant visual acuity is understudied, but generally thought to be moderate (i.e., maximal acuity of 13.16-14.37cycles/degreeabout 4.5 times less than human visual acuity, reviewed in Pettigrew et al., 2010), with dichromatic (Yokoyama et al., 2005) and most likely alternating monocular and binocular vision (Stone & Halasz, 1989).”

• cites Pettigrew et al., 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Yokoyama et al., 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Stone & Halasz, 1989Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Elephants are highly social, possess a dexterous and prehensile trunk, and exhibit complex behavior.

“Elephants, Loxodonta spp.and Elephas maximus, are highly social, possess a dexterous and prehensile trunk, and exhibit complex behavior”

• cites Dale & Plotnik, 2017Not checked yet

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• cites Foerder et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Greco et al., 2013Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Insight tasks like the floating object task have been used with several primate species, and the Aesop's Fable task has been used with mainly corvid species.

“Insight tasks like the floating object task have now been used with several primate species (capuchin monkeys, Cebus apella or Sapajus apella, Renner et al., 2017;orangutans, Pongo abelii, Mendes et al., 2007;chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, Tennie et al., 2010; Bornean orangutans, Pongo pygmaeus, gorillas, Gorilla, chimpanzees,”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “and the Aesop's Fable task (a variant of the floating object task in which subjects drop stones to raise the water level) has been used with mainly corvid species, Corvus spp.”

• cites Mendes et al., 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Hanus et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Bird & Emery, 2009a, bNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One experimental study in African bush elephants found evidence of social facilitation on a novel foraging task in captivity.

“One experimental study in African bush elephants, Loxodonta africana, found evidence of social facilitation on a novel foraging task in captivity (Greco et al., 2013).”

• cites Greco et al., 2013Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The floating object task was originally developed to measure insightful problem solving by using water as a tool to bring a floating food reward within reach.

“The floating object task was originally developed to measure insightful problem solving-the sudden production of a new response without trial and error (Thorpe, 1963) (i.e., an”

• cites Mendes et al., 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

The study was limited to three cycles of demonstration and individual trial due to time constraints.

“Unlike previous studies, however, we were limited to three cycles due to time constraints.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Location was included as a fixed effect to control for possible differences in testing environments.

“We included location as a fixed effect to control for possible differences in testing environments (e.g., herd cohesion, distractions during testing, enclosure size and setup, etc.).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study was not able to adapt the empty Top control for elephants' strength given time constraints.

“but unfortunately we were not able to adapt this control for elephants' strength given time constraints.”

May combine two claims.

The floating object task can be used for suitable species outside of primates, but it would have to be substantially modified to test other taxa lacking specific morphological capabilities (such as trunks).

“Our study shows that the floating object task can be used for suitable species outside of primates, but unfortunately, it would have to be substantially modified (or, for example, changed to the Aesop's fable task) to be able to test other taxa that do not have the specific morphological capabilities (such as trunks) that are required for the current version of this task.”

May combine two claims.

The study's design was limited by who solved the task and could serve as a demonstrator, as well as by social relationships for demonstrator-observer pairs.

“Here our design was limited by who solved the task and could serve as a demonstrator, as well as by social relationships for demonstrator-observer pairs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The task may have lacked ecological validity for elephants.

“That the task may have lacked ecological validity for elephants could also explain why the task may be less difficult for primates”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

No elephants had access to other objects during testing and thus could not attempt to make tools or solve using sticks or other objects.

“No elephants had access to other objects during testing and thus could not attempt to make tools or solve using sticks or other objects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In other floating object tasks, emulation has been investigated and shown to occur only in chimpanzees and children.

“In other floating object tasks, emulation has been investigated and shown to occur only in chimpanzees (Tennie et al., 2010) and children (Nielsen, 2013).”

• cites Tennie et al., 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Nielsen, 2013Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study could not have Shanthi demonstrate for Kandula because of their separate housing.

“Unfortunately, we could not have Shanthi (NZP) demonstrate for her son, Kandula (OKC), because of their separate housing”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Captive elephants may be less likely to rely on imitation for obtaining a relatively small food reward than wild counterparts.

“captive elephants-with relatively easier access to forage (they are given food in zoos) than their wild counterparts (Kummer & Goodall, 1985)-may be less likely to rely on imitation for obtaining a relatively small food reward.”

• cites Kummer & Goodall, 1985Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Location-specific differences, such as enclosure dimension or herd dynamics, could explain the trends found for location differences in latency to touch and exploratory diversity.

“Location-specific differences, such as enclosure dimension or herd dynamics, could explain the trends we found for location differences in latency to touch and exploratory diversity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kandula exhibited insightful problem solving on another task.

“Kandula exhibited insightful problem solving on another task (Foerder et al., 2011)”

• cites Foerder et al., 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Juvenile elephants learn to use their trunk and forage by interacting with related conspecifics.

“Juvenile elephants learn to use their trunk and forage by interacting with related conspecifics (Lee & Moss, 2011)”

• cites Lee & Moss, 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Aesop's fable task may be more suitable than the floating object task for species outside of primates because it is possible that more animals can pick up stones, or at least knock stones into a tube, than can move water.

“The Aesop's fable task may be more suitable than the floating object task for species outside of primates because it is possible that more animals can pick up stones, or at least knock stones into a tube, than can move water.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In another study of Asian elephant cognition, the elephants used an experimenter's position, not visual pointing and gaze cues, in relation to food to locate the food (via local enhancement).

“In another study of Asian elephant cognition, the elephants used an experimenter's position, not visual pointing and gaze cues, in relation to food to locate the food (via local enhancement, Ketchaisri et al., 2019).”

• cites Ketchaisri et al., 2019Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The study could not determine empirically whether Shanthi has an inherent tendency to add water to objects because she was not in the baseline group that received the dry, unbaited trial.

“Although we implemented a dry, unbaited trial, Shanthi was not in the baseline group that received this trial.Thus, we cannot determine empirically whether she has an inherent tendency to add water to objects.”