Changes in strength and cross sectional area of the elbow flexors as a result of isometric strength training
Abstract
Changes in strength and size of the elbow flexor muscles have been compared during six weeks of isometric strength training in six male and six female subjects. Isometric training of one arm resulted in a significant increase in isometric force (14.5 +/- 5.1%, mean +/- SD, n = 12). No differences were seen in the response of male and female subjects. The extent of the change was similar to that reported for training studies of other muscles, thus refuting the suggestion that the elbow flexors may be especially amenable to training. Biceps and brachialis cross-sectional area (CSA) was measured from mid-upper arm X-ray computerized tomography before and after training. Muscles increased in area (5.4 +/- 3.8%) but this was smaller than, and not correlated with, the increase in strength. The main change in the first six weeks of strength training was therefore an increase in the force generated per unit cross-sectional area of muscle. The arrangement of fibres in the biceps is nearly parallel to the action of the muscle and it is argued that the increase in force per unit cross-sectional area is unlikely to be due to changes in the pennation of the muscle fibres as has been suggested for other muscles.
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Numerous short-term resistance training studies have shown greater increases in strength/force than cross-sectional area, indicating an increase in specific tension.
“numerous short-term RT studies have shown greater increases in strength/force than cross-sectional area, indicating an increase in the specific tension (23, 27, 29, 42, 45, 61, 69, 83).”
From What makes long-term resistance-trained individuals so strong? A comparison of skeletal muscle morphology, architecture, and joint mechanics (2020) · cites this paper as [23]
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BackgroundNakatani, M., Takai, Y., & Kanehisa, H. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0307841 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Altan, E., Seide, S. E., Bayram, İ., Gizzi, L., Ertan, H., & Röhrle, O. (2020) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2020.518148 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“There exists a number of studies on unilateral training of the upper extremities (e.g., Rasch and Morehouse, 1957; Meyers, 1967; Coleman, 1969; Ikai and Fukunaga, 1970; Knapik et al., 1983; McDonagh et al., 1983; Davies et al., 1988; Thepaut-Mathieu et al., 1988; Kitai and Sale, 1989; Herbert et al., 1998; Macaluso et…”
BackgroundGhayomzadeh, M., Li, J., Eidy, F., Keshavarz, M. H., Sabag, A., Fornusek, C., & Hackett, D. A. (2025) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2025.07.011 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
EFFECT OF HIGH-SPEED RESISTANCE TRAINING ON MUSCLE CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA AND SPEED OF MOVEMENT
HISAEDA, H., Nakamura, Y., Kuno, S., Fukunaga, T., & Muraoka, I. (1996) · 体力科學 · doi:10.7600/jspfsm1949.45.345 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Electrostimulation in sports and rehabilitation
Kern, H. (2011) · European Journal of Translational Myology · doi:10.4081/bam.2011.3-4.123 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gaines, R. P. (2001) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Wages, N. P., Beck, T. W., Ye, X., & Carr, J. C. (2017) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13151 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Hence, larger increases in positive muscular responses or adaptations are observed when the dominant (DOM) limb is primarily trained, instead of when the nondominant (N-DOM) limb is trained (Davies et al. 1988; Housh et al. 1992; Farthing et al. 2005; Farthing 2009; Farthing and Zehr 2014).”
BackgroundDIFFERENCES IN MUSCLE THICKNESSES OF MALE AND FEMALE JAPANESE ELITE ATHLETES
Ishida, Y., Kanehisa, H., & Fukunaga, T. (1992) · 体力科學 · doi:10.7600/jspfsm1949.41.233 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The inter-individual variability in human muscle strength and in the response to resistance training
Erskine, R. M. (2026) · e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) · doi:10.83056/mmu.32433333 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Costa, P. B., Herda, T. J., Herda, A. A., & Cramer, J. T. (2022) · Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1007/s42978-021-00148-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The results of the current study are also in agreement with studies reporting no changes in percent of voluntary activation as assessed by the TI technique following resistance training [4, 7, 8, 16, 27, 30, 31, 37, 59, 67].”
ResultDie Elektrostimulation im Sport und in der Rehabilitation
Kern, H. (2011) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kauranen, K. J. (1999) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
ENDO, S., Sakuraba, K., & Kubota, A. (2016) · Juntendō Igaku/Juntendo igaku · doi:10.14789/jmj.62.146 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Fisher, J. P., Steele, J., & Jessop, D. (2016) · Journal of Trainology · doi:10.17338/trainology.5.2_46 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effect of strength training on muscle architecture (review)
Mirzayev, J. (2017) · Sporto mokslas / Sport Science · doi:10.15823/sm.2017.9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In the last 80 years, some studies (Gollnick et al., 1981; Maughan et al., 1984, Jones, Rutherford, 1987, Davies et al., 1988; Narici et al., 1989) found indirect evidence of changes in the muscle architecture determined by strength training (Kawakami et al., 1995).”
BackgroundGhayomzadeh, M., Natera, A., Sabag, A., Cooper, B., Davis, G. M., & Hackett, D. A. (2025) · JSAMS Plus · doi:10.1016/j.jsampl.2025.100108 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Housh, D. J., Housh, T. J., Johnson, G. O., & Chu, W.-K. (1993) · Isokinetics and Exercise Science · doi:10.3233/ies-1993-3302 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The effect of high and low contraction velocity training on cross education and muscle hypertrophy
Farthing, J. P. (2001) · University Library - University of Saskatchewan (University of Saskatchewan)
Muscular strength in idiopathic haemihypertrophy
Maffulli, N., Fixsen, J. A., & Jackson, A. M. (1992) · Clinical Physiology · doi:10.1111/j.1475-097x.1992.tb00300.x
Joint-dependence of strength and power in children and adults
Denis, R. (2009) · Brunel University Research Archive (BURA) (Brunel University London)
Time course of muscle hypertrophy, strength, and muscle activation with intense eccentric training
Krentz, J. R. (2008) · University Library - University of Saskatchewan (University of Saskatchewan)
- Authors
- Davies, J., Parker, D. F., Rutherford, O. M., & Jones, D. A.
- Affiliations
- St Thomas' Hospital (GB)
- University College London (GB)
- Venue
- European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology
- Published
- 1988-11
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 667-670
- ISSN
- 0020-9376 (ISSN-L)
- 0301-5548
- 1439-6327
- OpenAlex
- W1985389268
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 14
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 3.52
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- European Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Muscle activation and electromyography studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- isometric strength training, elbow flexors, biceps brachii, brachialis, muscle cross-sectional area, muscle strength, sex differences, muscle hypertrophy
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Elbow, Female, Humans, Isometric Contraction, Male, Muscle Contraction, Muscles, Physical Education and Training
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