The Adaptations to Strength Training: Morphological and Neurological Contributions to Increased Strength

Folland, Jonathan P; Williams, Alun G

doi:10.2165/00007256-200737020-00004

Cited by 1,347Sports Performance and TrainingMuscle Physiology and DisordersMuscle activation and electromyography studies

The Adaptations to Strength Training: Morphological and Neurological Contributions to Increased Strength

Folland, Jonathan P, Williams, Alun G·2007·Sports Medicine

DOI 10.2165/00007256-200737020-00004

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Abstract

High-resistance strength training (HRST) is one of the most widely practiced forms of physical activity, which is used to enhance athletic performance, augment musculo-skeletal health and alter body aesthetics. Chronic exposure to this type of activity produces marked increases in muscular strength, which are attributed to a range of neurological and morphological adaptations. This review assesses the evidence for these adaptations, their interplay and contribution to enhanced strength and the methodologies employed. The primary morphological adaptations involve an increase in the cross-sectional area of the whole muscle and individual muscle fibres, which is due to an increase in myofibrillar size and number. Satellite cells are activated in the very early stages of training; their proliferation and later fusion with existing fibres appears to be intimately involved in the hypertrophy response. Other possible morphological adaptations include hyperplasia, changes in fibre type, muscle architecture, myofilament density and the structure of connective tissue and tendons. Indirect evidence for neurological adaptations, which encompasses learning and coordination, comes from the specificity of the training adaptation, transfer of unilateral training to the contralateral limb and imagined contractions. The apparent rise in whole-muscle specific tension has been primarily used as evidence for neurological adaptations; however, morphological factors (e.g. preferential hypertrophy of type 2 fibres, increased angle of fibre pennation, increase in radiological density) are also likely to contribute to this phenomenon. Changes in inter-muscular coordination appear critical. Adaptations in agonist muscle activation, as assessed by electromyography, tetanic stimulation and the twitch interpolation technique, suggest small, but significant increases. Enhanced firing frequency and spinal reflexes most likely explain this improvement, although there is contrary evidence suggesting no change in cortical or corticospinal excitability. The gains in strength with HRST are undoubtedly due to a wide combination of neurological and morphological factors. Whilst the neurological factors may make their greatest contribution during the early stages of a training programme, hypertrophic processes also commence at the onset of training.

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There is evidence that resistance training exercise induces neural adaptations, such as increased recruitment of motor units, firing frequency, and coordinated movements between muscles, which can enhance force production and increase strength independent of hypertrophic or body composition changes.
“There is evidence that resistance training exercise induces neural adaptations, such as increased recruitment of motor units, firing frequency, and coordinated movements between muscles, which can enhance force production and increase strength independent of hypertrophic or body composition changes [52, 53].”
From The effects of a home-based resistance training programme on body composition and muscle function during weight loss in people living with overweight or obesity: a randomised controlled pilot trial (2025) · cites this paper as [52]
Previous studies have reported that increase in muscle thickness in the upper body are greater and occur earlier compared to the lower extremity, during the first 12 weeks of a total body dynamic resistance training program.
“Previous studies, however, have reported that increase in muscle thickness in the upper body are greater and occur earlier compared to the lower extremity, during the first 12 weeks of a total body dynamic resistance training program [46,48].”
From A 12-Week Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial, Evaluating the Effect of Supplementation with a Spinach Extract on Skeletal Muscle Fitness in Adults Older Than 50 Years of Age (2021) · cites this paper as [46]
Both men and women respond to training with an improvement of strength and muscle mass.
“Both men and women respond to training with an improvement of strength and muscle mass [46,50].”
From A 12-Week Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial, Evaluating the Effect of Supplementation with a Spinach Extract on Skeletal Muscle Fitness in Adults Older Than 50 Years of Age (2021) · cites this paper as [46]

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Exercise Metabolism and the Molecular Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Adaptation
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Maximal and explosive strength training elicit distinct neuromuscular adaptations, specific to the training stimulus
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Short‐term training for explosive strength causes neural and mechanical adaptations
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Short‐term unilateral resistance training affects the agonist–antagonist but not the force–agonist activation relationship
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Increased central facilitation of antagonist reciprocal inhibition at the onset of dorsiflexion following explosive strength training
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Can Pelvic Floor Muscle Training Improve Sexual Function in Women with Pelvic Organ Prolapse? A Randomized Controlled Trial
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Sarcoplasmic Hypertrophy in Skeletal Muscle: A Scientific “Unicorn” or Resistance Training Adaptation?
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Influence of exercise contraction mode and protein supplementation on human skeletal muscle satellite cell content and muscle fiber growth.
Farup, J., Rahbek, S. K., Riis, S., Vendelbo, M. H., Paoli, F. D., & Vissing, K. (2014) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00261.2014 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Neural adaptations after 4 years vs 12 weeks of resistance training vs untrained
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Acute and chronic effects of resistance training on skeletal muscle markers of mitochondrial remodeling in older adults
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Vegan and omnivorous high protein diets support comparable daily myofibrillar protein synthesis rates and skeletal muscle hypertrophy in young adults
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Polygenic Profile of Elite Strength Athletes
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Influence of resistance training load on measures of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and improvements in maximal strength and neuromuscular task performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
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Six Weeks of Low-Load Blood Flow Restricted and High-Load Resistance Exercise Training Produce Similar Increases in Cumulative Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis and Ribosomal Biogenesis in Healthy Males
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Comparison of skeletal muscle strength between cardiac patients and age-matched healthy controls
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Intermittent fasting and continuous energy restriction result in similar changes in body composition and muscle strength when combined with a 12 week resistance training program
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Tendinous tissue properties after short‐ and long‐term functional overload: Differences between controls, 12 weeks and 4 years of resistance training
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Effects of Detraining on Muscle Strength and Hypertrophy Induced by Resistance Training: A Systematic Review
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“…that resistance training exercise induces neural adaptations, such as increased recruitment of motor units, firing frequency, and coordinated movements between muscles, which can enhance force production and increase strength independent of hypertrophic or body composition changes [52, 53].”

Studies on Myofibrils from the Stored Muscle
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Authors: Folland, J. P., & Williams, A. G.
Affiliations: Loughborough University (GB)
Manchester Metropolitan University (GB)
Corresponding author: Folland, Jonathan P
ORCID: Folland, Jonathan P
Williams, Alun G
Venue: Sports Medicine
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2007
Volume: 37
Issue: 2
Pages: 145-168
ISSN: 0112-1642 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200737020-00004
OpenAlex: W1978684156
Cited by: 1,347
References: 280
Citations by year: 2026: 90 · 2025: 102 · 2024: 96 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 106 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 92 · 2019: 78 · 2018: 73 · 2017: 72 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 69 · 2013: 62 · 2012: 47
FWCI: 5.91
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Sports Medicine (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Muscle activation and electromyography studies
Keywords: muscle strength, hypertrophy, satellite cells, muscle fiber type, muscle architecture, specific tension, motor unit activation, corticospinal excitability, spinal reflexes, training effects
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Physiological, Electromyography, Physical Exertion, Humans, Muscle Contraction, Myosins, Physical Endurance, Sports, Weight Lifting, Muscle, Skeletal

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The Adaptations to Strength Training: Morphological and Neurological Contributions to Increased Strength

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