Student or educator? Sign up with your school email and get 6 months of Pro free.
Cited by 243

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 10 of the 10 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice

Dempster, Frank N.·1989·Educational Psychology Review

Overview

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/bf01320097

Cites

10 of 10 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Verification

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Citations

Cites

Research works printed but not linked: 95

  1. Anderson, R. C., and Biddle, W. B. (1975). On asking people questions about what they are reading. In Bower, G. H. (ed.),The Psychology of Language and Motivation (Vol. 9), New York, Academic Press, pp. 90?132.
  2. Armbruster, B. B., and Anderson, T. H. (1984). Structures of explanation in history textbooks or so what if Governor Stanford missed the spike and hit the rail?J. Curric. Studies 16: 181?194. · DOI
  3. Austin, S. D. M. (1921). A study in logical memory.Am. J. Psychol. 32: 370?403. · DOI
  4. Ausubel, D. P. (1966). Early versus delayed review in meaningful learning.Psychol. Schools 3: 195?198. · doi:10.1002/1520-6807(196607)3:3<195::aid-pits2310030302>3.0.co;2-x
  5. Baddeley, A. D. (1976).The Psychology of Memory. New York, Basic Books.
  6. Bjork, R. A. (1979). Information-processing analysis of college teaching.Educat. Psychol. 14: 15?23. · DOI
  7. Bower, G. H. (1972). Stimulus-sampling theory of encoding variability. In Melton, A. W., and Martin, E. (Eds.),Coding in Human Memory New York, Winston & Sons, pp. 85?124.
  8. Brainerd, C. J., Kingma, J., and Howe, M. L. (1985). On the development of forgetting.Child Devel. 56: 1103?1119. · doi:10.2307/1130226
  9. Bruning, R. H. (1968). Effects of review and testlike events within the learning of prose material.J. Educat. Psychol. 59: 16?19. · DOI
  10. Burns, P. C. (1970). Intensive review as a procedure in teaching arithmetic.Elem. School J. 60: 205?211. · doi:10.1086/459803
  11. Burry, J., Catteral, J., Choppin, B., and Dorr-Bremme, D. (1982). Testing in the nation's schools and districts: How much? What kinds? To what ends? At what costs? (CSE report no. 194). Los Angeles, Center for the Study of Evaluation, University of California.
  12. Cornell, E. H. (1980). Distributed study facilitates infants' delayed recognition memory.Mem. Cognit. 8: 539?542. · DOI
  13. Dearborn, W. F. (1910). Experiments in learning.J. Educat. Psychol. 1: 373?388. · DOI
  14. Dellarosa, D., and Bourne, L. E. (1985). Surface form and the spacing effect.Mem. Cognit. 13: 529?537. · DOI
  15. Dempster, F. N. (1987). Effects of variable encoding and spaced presentations on vocabulary learning.J. Educat. Psychol. 79: 162?170. · DOI · Paper page
  16. Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: A case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research.Am. Psychol. 43: 627?634. · DOI · Paper page
  17. Donaldson, W. (1970). Output effects in multitrial free recall.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 10: 577?585. · DOI
  18. Ebbinghaus, H. (1885).Memory (translated by H. A. Ruger and C. E. Bussenius). New York, Teachers College, 1913. Paperback ed., New York, Dover, 1964.
  19. Elmes, D. G., Dye, C. J., and Herdelin, N. J. (1983). What is the role of affect in the spacing effect?Mem. Cognit. 11: 144?151. · DOI
  20. Elmes, D. G., Greener, W. I., and Wilkinson, W. C. (1972). Free recall of items presented after massed- and distributed-practice items.Am. J. Psychol. 85: 237?240. · DOI
  21. English, H. B., Wellborn, E. L., and Killian, C. D. (1934). Studies in substance memorization.J. Gen. Psychol. 11: 233?260. · DOI
  22. Gates, A. I. (1917). Recitation as a factor in memorizing.Arch. Psychol. 6: 1?104.
  23. Gay, L. R. (1973). Temporal position of reviews and its effect on the retention of mathematical rules.J. Educat. Psychol. 64: 171?182. · DOI
  24. Glanzer, M., and Duarte, A. (1971). Repetition between and within languages in free recall.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 10: 625?630. · DOI
  25. Glenberg, A. M., and Smith, S. M. (1981). Spacing repetitions and solving problems are not the same.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 20: 110?119. · DOI
  26. Glover, J. A., and Corkill, A. J. (1987). Influence of paraphrased repetitions on the spacing effect.J. Educat. Psychol. 79: 198?199. · DOI
  27. Good, T. L., and Brophy, J. E. (1986).Educational Psychology (3rd ed.). New York, Longman.
  28. Good, T. L., and Grouws, D. A. (1979). The Missouri mathematics effectiveness project.J. Educat. Psychol. 71: 355?362. · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.71.3.355 · Paper page
  29. Greeno, J. G. (1970). Conservation of information-processing capacity in paired-associate memorizing.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 9: 581?586. · DOI
  30. Halff, H. M. (1977). The role of opportunities for recall in learning to retrieve.Am. J. Psychol. 90: 383?406. · DOI
  31. Hilgard, E. R., and Bower, G. H. (1975).Theories of Learning (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.
  32. Hintzman, D. L. (1974). Theoretical implications of the spacing effect. In Solso, R. L. (ed.).Theories in Cognitive Psychology: The Loyola Symposium Potomac, Maryland, Erlbaum, pp. 77?99.
  33. Hintzman, D. L., and Rogers, M. K. (1973). Spacing effects in picture memory.Mem. Cognit. 1: 430?434. · DOI
  34. Hintzman, D. L., Summers, J. J., and Block, R. A. (1975). What causes the spacing effect? Some effects of repetition, duration, and spacing on memory for pictures.Mem. Cognit. xx: 287?294. · DOI
  35. Hogan, R. M., and Kintsch, W. (1971). Differential effects of study and test trials on long-term recognition and recall.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 10: 562?567. · DOI · Paper page
  36. Izawa, C. (1971). The test trial potentiating model.J. Math. Psychol. 8: 200?224. · DOI
  37. Jacoby, L. L. (1978). On interpreting the effects of repetition: Solving a problem versus remembering a solution.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 17: 649?667. · DOI · Paper page
  38. Jones, H. E. (1923?1924). The effects of examination on permanence of learning.Arch. Psychol. 10: 21?70.
  39. Kim, E. C., and Kellough, R. D. (1987).A Resource Guide for Secondary School Teaching (4th ed.). New York, Macmillan.
  40. Kraft, R. M., and Jenkins, J. J. (1981). The lag effect with aurally presented passages.Bull. Psychonom. Soc. 17: 132?134. · DOI
  41. Kuhs, T., Porter, A., Floden, R., Freeman, D., Schmidt, W., and Schwille, J. (1985). Differences among teachers in their use of curriculum-embedded tests.Elem. School J. 86: 141?152. · doi:10.1086/461439
  42. Lachman, R., and Laughery, K. L. (1968). Is a test trial a training trial in free recall learning?J. Exper. Psychol. 76: 40?50. · DOI
  43. Landauer, T. K. (1969). Reinforcement as consolidation.Psychol. Rev. 76: 82?96. · DOI
  44. Landauer, T. K., and Bjork, R. A. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. In Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. E., and Sykes, R. N. (eds.),Practical Aspects of Memory New York, Academic Press, pp. 625?632.
  45. Lyon, D. O. (1914). The relation of length of material to time taken for learning and the optimum distribution of time.J. Educat. Psychol. 5: 85?91, 155?163. · doi:10.1037/h0070943
  46. Magliero, A. (1983). Pupil dilations following pairs of identical words and related to-be-remembered words.Mem. Cognit. 11: 609?615. · DOI
  47. Martin, E. (1972). Stimulus encoding in learning and transfer. In Meltin, A. W., and Martin, E. (eds.),Coding Processes in Human Memory Washington, D.C., Winston, pp. 59?84.
  48. MasKarinec, A. S., and Thompson, C. P. (1976). The within list distributed practice effect: Tests of the varied context and varied encoding hypotheses.Mem. Cognit. 4: 741?746. · DOI
  49. Mayer, R. E. (1987).Educational Psychology: A Cognitive Approach. Boston, Little, Brown.
  50. McDaniel, M. A., and Masson, M. E. J. (1985). Altering memory representation through retrieval.J. Exper. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cognit. 11: 371?385. · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.11.2.371 · Paper page
  51. McDermott, P. A., and Watkins, M. W. (1983). Computerized vs. conventional remedial instruction for learning disabled pupils.J. Special Ed. 17: 81?88. · DOI
  52. McGaw, B., and Grotelueschen, A. (1972). Direction of the effect of questions in prose material.J. Educat. Psychol. 63: 586?588. · DOI
  53. McGeoch, J. A. (1943).The Psychology of Human Learning. New York, Longmans Green.
  54. Melton, A. W. (1970). The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 9: 596?606. · DOI · Paper page
  55. Modigliani, V. (1976). Effects on a later recall by delaying initial recall.J. Exper. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem. 2: 609?622. · DOI
  56. Moscovitch, M. (1984).Infant Memory. New York, Plenum Press. · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-9364-5
  57. Murdock, B. B., Jr., and Babick, A. J. (1961). The effect of repetition on the retention of individual words.J. Psychol. 74: 596?601. · DOI
  58. Nungester, R. J., and Duchastel, P. C. (1982). Testing versus review: Effects on retention.J. Educat. Psychol. 74: 18?22. · DOI
  59. Ornstein, P. A., and Naus, M. J. (1978). Rehearsal processes in children's memory. In Ornstein, P. A. (ed.),Memory Development in Children Hillsdale, New Jersey, Erlbaum, pp. 69?99.
  60. Perkins, N. L. (1914). The value of distributed repetitions in rote learning.Brit. J. Psychol. 1: 253?261.
  61. Peterson, H. A., Ellis, M., Toohill, N., and Kloess, P. (1935). Some measurements of the effects of reviews.J. Educat. Psychol. 26: 65?72. · DOI
  62. Petros, T., and Hoving, K. (1980). The effects of review on young children's memory for prose.J. Exper. Child Psychol. 30: 33?43. · DOI
  63. Postman, L., and Knecht, K. (1983). Encoding variability and retention.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 22: 133?152. · DOI
  64. Pyle, W. H. (1913). Economical learning.J. Educat. Psychol. 3: 148?158. · DOI
  65. Rea, C. P., and Modigliani, V. (1985). The effect of expanded versus massed practice on the retention of multiplication facts and spelling lists.Hum. Learn. 4: 11?18.
  66. Rea, C. P., and Modigliani, V. (1987). The spacing effect in 4- to 9-year-old children.Mem. Cognit. 15: 436?443. · DOI
  67. Rescorla, R. A., and Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In Black, A. H., and Prokasy, W. F. (eds.),Classical Conditioning II: Current Research and Theory New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, pp. 64?99.
  68. Reynolds, J. H., and Glaser, R. (1964). Effects of repetition and spaced review upon retention of a complex learning task.J. Educat. Psychol. 55: 297?308. · DOI
  69. Rose, A. J. (1980). Encoding variability, levels of processing, and the effects of spacing of repetitions upon judgments of frequency.Mem. Cognit. 8: 84?93. · DOI
  70. Rose, A. J. (1984). Processing time for repetitions and the spacing effect.Canad. J. Psychol. 38: 537?550. · DOI
  71. Rosenshine, B., and Stevens, R. (1986). Teaching functions. In Wittrock, M. C. (ed.),Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd. ed.), New York, Macmillan, pp. 376?391.
  72. Rothkopf, E. Z. (1963). Some observations on predicting instructional effectiveness by simple inspection.J. Prog. Instruct. 3: 19?20.
  73. Rothkopf, E. Z. (1966). Learning from written instructive materials: An exploration of the control of inspection behavior by test-like events.Am. Educat. Res. J. 3: 241?249. · doi:10.3102/00028312003004241 · Paper page
  74. Rothkopf, E. Z., and Coke, E. V. (1966). Variations in phrasing and repetition interval and the recall of sentence materials.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 5: 86?89. · DOI
  75. Rowe, E. J., and Rose, R. J. (1977). Effects of orienting task, spacing of repetitions, and list context on judgments of frequency.Mem. Cognit. 5: 505?512. · DOI
  76. Ruch, T. C. (1928). Factors influencing the relative economy of massed and distributed practice in learning.Psychol. Rev. 35: 19?45. · DOI
  77. Runquist, W. N. (1986). The effect of testing on the forgetting of related and unrelated associates.Canad. J. Psychol. 40: 65?76. · DOI
  78. Saxon, J. (1982). Incremental development: A breakthrough in mathematics.Phi Delta Kappan 63: 482?484.
  79. Shaughnessy, J. J. (1976). Persistence of the spacing effect in free recall under varying incidental learning conditions.Mem. Cognit. 4: 369?377. · DOI
  80. Siegel, M. A., and Misselt, A. L. (1984). Adaptive feedback and review paradigm for computer-based drills.J. Educat. Psychol. 76: 310?317. · DOI
  81. Slamecka, N. J., and Katsaiti, L. T. (1988). Normal forgetting of verbal lists as a function of prior testing.J. Exper. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cognit. 14: 716?727. · DOI
  82. Slavin, R. (1988).Educational Psychology: Theory into Practice (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.
  83. Sones, A. M., and Stroud, J. B. (1940). Review with special reference to temporal position.J. Educat. Psychol. 31: 665?676. · DOI
  84. Stigler, J. W., Fuson, K. C., Ham, M., and Kim, M. S. (1986). An analysis of addition and subtraction word problems in American and Soviet elementary mathematics textbooks.Cognit. Instruct. 3: 153?171. · DOI
  85. Thorndike, E. L. (1916). Notes on practice, improvability and the curve of work.Am. J. Psychol. 27: 550?565. · DOI
  86. Toppino, T. C., and DeMesquita, M. (1984). Effects of spacing repetitions on children's memory.J. Exper. Child Psychol. 37: 637?648. · DOI
  87. Toppino, T. C., and DiGeorge, W. (1984). The spacing effect in free recall emerges with development.Mem. Cognit. 12: 118?122. · DOI
  88. Toppino, T. C., and Gracen, T. F. (1985). The lag effect and differential organization theory.J. Exper. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cognit. 11: 185?191. · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.11.1.185
  89. Underwood, B. J. (1961). Ten years of massed practice on distributed practice.Psychol. Rev. 68: 229?247. · DOI
  90. Underwood, B. J. (1970). A breakdown of the total-time law in free-recall learning.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 9: 573?580. · DOI
  91. Watts, G. H., and Anderson, R. C. (1971). Effects of three types of inserted questions learning from prose.J. Educat. Psychol. 62: 387?394. · DOI · Paper page
  92. Whitten, W. B., II, and Bjork, R. A. (1977). Learning from tests: Effects of spacing.J. Verb. Learn. Verb. Behav. 16: 456?478.
  93. Woolfolk, A. E. (1987).Educational Psychology (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.
  94. Yeh, J. P. (1978).Test Use in Schools. Washington, D.C., National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
  95. Zechmeister, E. B., and Shaughnessy, J. J. (1980). When you know that you know and when you think that you know but you don't.Bull. Psychonom. Soc. 15: 41?44. · DOI · Paper page

Cited by

See all 243

Metadata

Authors
Dempster, F. N.
Venue
Educational Psychology Review
Published
1989-12
Volume
1
Issue
4
Pages
309-330
ISSN
  • 1040-726X (ISSN-L)
  • 1573-336X
OpenAlex
W2029507764
Cited by
243
References
10
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Data sources

Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.

Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).

Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.