Cited by 433HIV, Drug Use, Sexual RiskSurvey Sampling and Estimation TechniquesSurvey Methodology and Nonresponse

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Using Respondent-Driven Sampling Methodology for HIV Biological and Behavioral Surveillance in International Settings: A Systematic Review

Malekinejad, Mohsen, Johnston, Lisa Grazina, Kendall, Carl, Kerr, Ligia Regina Franco Sansigolo, Rifkin, Marina Raven, Rutherford, George W.·2008·AIDS and Behavior

DOI 10.1007/s10461-008-9421-1

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Abstract

To determine operational and analytical characteristics of respondent-driven sampling (RDS) in international settings and to explore factors that may affect recruitment of most-at-risk populations using RDS, we reviewed HIV biological and behavioral surveillance studies that used this method outside of the United States. We identified 123 eligible studies, 59 from Europe, 40 from Asia and the Pacific, 14 from Latin America, seven from Africa and three from Oceania. Studies collectively recruited 32,298 participants between 2003 and 2007; 53% of studies were conducted among injecting drug users, which generally had faster recruitment compared with studies among sex workers. All but 13 studies reached > or = 90% of their intended sample size, and six studies failed to reach equilibrium for key variables. This review has shown that RDS is an effective technique, when designed and implemented appropriately, to sample most-at-risk populations for HIV biological and behavioral surveys.

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Božičević, I., Riedner, G., & Calleja, J. M. G. (2013) · Sexually Transmitted Infections · doi:10.1136/sextrans-2012-050849 · Cited by 57
Sampling Methodologies for Epidemiologic Surveillance of Men Who Have Sex with Men and Transgender Women in Latin America: An Empiric Comparison of Convenience Sampling, Time Space Sampling, and Respondent Driven Sampling
Clark, J. L., Konda, K. A., Silva‐Santisteban, A., Peinado, J., Lama, J. R., Kusunoki, L., Perez‐Brumer, A., Pun, M., Cabello, R. L., Sebastian, J. L., et al. (2013) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0680-0 · Cited by 56
“By including these conditions, RDS analysis will ideally enroll a large enough number of participants in a sufficient number of recruitment waves to achieve equilibrium (where the enrollment of additional participants does not substantially alter the sample’s population estimates) and produce prevalence estimates repr…”
Risk Factors for HIV and Unprotected Anal Intercourse among Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM) in Almaty, Kazakhstan
Berry, M., Wirtz, A. L., Janayeva, A., Ragoza, V., Terlikbayeva, A., Amirov, B., Baral, S., & Beyrer, C. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043071 · Cited by 55
“However, while the prevalence estimates used the RDS weights, the regression analyses presented in this paper do not use weights, because sampling weights do not give correct standard errors in multivariate regressions [14], and there is debate among statisticians on whether RDS weights can be used in multivariate ana…”
MethodInfluential
Spatial, temporal and relational patterns in respondent-driven sampling: evidence from a social network study of rural drug users
Young, A. M., Rudolph, A. E., Quillen, D., & Havens, J. R. (2014) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2014-203935 · Cited by 55
Cross-sectional study of female sex workers in Soweto, South Africa: Factors associated with HIV infection
Coetzee, J., Jewkes, R. K., & Gray, G. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0184775 · Cited by 56
Estimating HIV Prevalence and Risk Behaviors Among High-Risk Heterosexual Men With Multiple Sex Partners: Use of Respondent-Driven Sampling
Chopra, M., Townsend, L., Johnston, L. G., Mathews, C., Tomlinson, M., O’Bra, H., & Kendall, C. (2009) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0b013e31819907de · Cited by 53
Self-citation
Sampling Key Populations for HIV Surveillance: Results From Eight Cross-Sectional Studies Using Respondent-Driven Sampling and Venue-Based Snowball Sampling
Rao, A., Stahlman, S. L., Hargreaves, J., Weir, S. S., Edwards, J. K., Rice, B. D., Kochelani, D., Mavimbela, M., & Baral, S. (2017) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/publichealth.8116 · Cited by 54
“In addition, RDS captures the social network sizes of individuals, so that these can also be taken into account and adjusted for in the analyses [28,29,31,32].”
High hepatitis C virus prevalence among drug users in Iran: systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological evidence (2001–2012)
Malekinejad, M., Navadeh, S., Lotfizadeh, A., Rahimi‐Movaghar, A., Amin‐Esmaeili, M., & Noroozi, A. (2015) · International Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2015.09.022 · Cited by 53
Self-citation
High variability of HIV and HCV seroprevalence and risk behaviours among people who inject drugs: results from a cross-sectional study using respondent-driven sampling in eight German cities (2011–14)
the DRUCK Study group, Wenz, B., Nielsen, S., Gassowski, M., Hövener, C., Cai, W., Roß, R. S., Bock, C. –., Ratsch, B. A., Kücherer, C., et al. (2016) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-016-3545-4 · Cited by 55
“Due to their strong social networks and because PWID often buy from and inject drugs with other PWID, RDS worked well as a recruitment method in the majority of studies [34, 35].”
BackgroundResult
Methods for Inference from Respondent-Driven Sampling Data
Gile, K. J., Beaudry, I. S., Handcock, M. S., & Ott, M. Q. (2018) · Annual Review of Statistics and Its Application · doi:10.1146/annurev-statistics-031017-100704 · Cited by 53
“…implications and are instrumental in directing aid moneys aimed at addressing the global burden of diseases such as HIV/AIDS (Magnani et al. 2005, Malekinejad et al. 2008), thus creating a critical public health need for improved understanding of and performance of inferential procedures for RDS…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Reaching Men Who Have Sex with Men: A Comparison of Respondent-Driven Sampling and Time-Location Sampling in Guatemala City
Paz‐Bailey, G., Miller, W., Shiraishi, R. W., Jacobson, J. O., Abimbola, T. O., & Chen, S. Y. (2013) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0589-7 · Cited by 51
“Reviews of available methods for surveillance in hardto-reach populations [19, 20] and more than 200 RDS studies in 36 countries [20–23] have concluded that RDS remains a promising and effective sampling method when appropriately designed and implemented.”
Respondent-Driven Sampling With Hard-to-Reach Emerging Adults: An Introduction and Case Study With Rural African Americans
Kogan, S. M., Wejnert, C., Chen, Y., Brody, G. H., & Slater, L. M. (2010) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558410384734 · Cited by 51
“Evidence regarding the promise of RDS for supporting research with hardtoreach and hidden populations is mounting, and it has been adopted by the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) for use in HIV surveillance activities (Malekinejad et al., 2008).”
Method
Errors in reported degrees and respondent driven sampling: Implications for bias
Mills, H. L., Johnson, S., Hickman, M., Jones, N. S., & Colijn, C. (2014) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.06.015 · Cited by 50
“All rights reserved. et al., 2002, 1998; Des Jarlais et al., 2007; Johnston et al., 2008; Malekinejad et al., 2008; Robinson et al., 2006).”
Background
Social Network Characteristics and HIV Vulnerability Among Transgender Persons in San Salvador: Identifying Opportunities for HIV Prevention Strategies
Barrington, C., Wejnert, C., Guardado, M. E., Nieto, A. I., & Paz‐Bailey, G. (2011) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-011-9959-1 · Cited by 52
“Standard RDS methodology was followed for the recruitment and data collection process [26, 27].”
Reaching black men who have sex with men: a comparison between respondent-driven sampling and time-location sampling
Wei, C., McFarland, W., Colfax, G. N., Fuqua, V., & Raymond, H. F. (2012) · Sexually Transmitted Infections · doi:10.1136/sextrans-2012-050619 · Cited by 51
“3 RDS has become a popular method to recruit MSM around the world including countries in Africa and Asia, many of which have high levels of stigma towards MSM and where MSM venues may be very rare.(4) In the USA, RDS has notably been used to recruit minority MSM and specifically black MSM in various contexts.”
Method
Estimating the Size of Hidden Populations Using Respondent-driven Sampling Data
Johnston, L. G., McLaughlin, K. R., Rhilani, H. E., Latifi, A., Toufik, A., Bennani, A., Alami, K., Omari, B. E., & Handcock, M. S. (2015) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000000362 · Cited by 49
Self-citation
Prevalence of HIV/HCV/HBV infections and drug-related risk behaviours amongst IDUs recruited through peer-driven sampling in Iran
Zamani, S., Radfar, R., Nematollahi, P., Fadaie, R., Meshkati, M., Mortazavi, S., Sedaghat, A., Ono‐Kihara, M., & Kihara, M. (2010) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2010.04.006 · Cited by 47
“Currently, RDS is being applied in many international settings as an effective method to recruit hard-to-reach populations that are connected through social networks (Frost et al., 2006; Johnston, Khanam, et al., 2008; Johnston et al., 2006;Malekinejad et al., 2008; Stormer et al., 2006; Yeka, Maibani-Michie, Prybylsk…”
Method
Current and recent drug use intensifies sexual and structural HIV risk outcomes among female sex workers in the Russian Federation
Wirtz, A. L., Peryshkina, A., Mogilniy, V., Beyrer, C., & Decker, M. R. (2015) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2015.04.017 · Cited by 46
“(Malekinejad et al., 2008) This peer-based, chain recruitment method engaged seeds and enrolled participants as future recruiters.”
Method
Vulnerability in the context of HIV and syphilis infection in a population of men who have sex with men (MSM) in Salvador, Bahia State, Brazil
Brignol, S., Dourado, I. C., Amorim, L. D. A. F., & Kerr, L. R. F. S. (2015) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311x00178313 · Cited by 46
Self-citation
A comparison of respondent-driven and venue-based sampling of female sex workers in Liuzhou, China
Weir, S. S., Merli, M. G., Li, J., Gandhi, A. D., Neely, W. W., Edwards, J. K., Suchindran, C., Henderson, G. E., & Chen, X. (2012) · Sexually Transmitted Infections · doi:10.1136/sextrans-2012-050638 · Cited by 46
New Evidence on the HIV Epidemic in Libya
Mirzoyan, L., Berendes, S., Jeffery, C., Thomson, J., Othman, H. B., Danon, L., Turki, A. A., Saffialden, R., & Valadez, J. J. (2013) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0b013e318284714a · Cited by 45
HIV-1, HBV, HCV, HTLV, HPV-16/18, and Treponema pallidum Infections in a Sample of Brazilian Men Who Have Sex with Men
Soares, C. C., Georg, I., Lampe, E., Lewis‐Ximenez, L. L., Morgado, M. G., Nicol, A. F., Pinho, A. D. A., Salles, R. C. S., Teixeira, S. L. M., Vicente, A. C. P., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0102676 · Cited by 44
“RDS is a relatively recent method (empirical studies started in 2003), now conducted in studies from all five continents [24].”
Method
“You Never Know What You’re Getting”: Opioid Users’ Perceptions of Fentanyl in Southwest Pennsylvania
McLean, K. J., Monnat, S. M., Rigg, K. K., Sterner, G., & Verdery, A. M. (2019) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2018.1552303 · Cited by 44
“From July 2017 to July 2018, we recruited 125 survey respondents, which is within the range of typical studies of hidden populations (Malekinejad et al., 2008).”
Background
Sampling Methods Used in Developed Countries for Behavioural Surveillance Among Men who have Sex with Men
Paquette, D. M., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2010) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-010-9743-7 · Cited by 43
“Recommendations for key data that should be reported for each RDS study were recently made [77].”
Background
HIV and STI behavioural surveillance among men who have sex with men in Europe
Elford, J., Jeannin, A., Spencer, B., Gervasoni, J. P., van de Laar, M. J. W., Dubois-Arber, F., & Collective the HIV and STI Behavioural Surveillance Mapping Group (2009) · Eurosurveillance · doi:10.2807/ese.14.47.19414-en · Cited by 43
“Taking Care of Business”: Alcohol as Currency in Transactional Sexual Relationships Among Players in Cape Town, South Africa
Townsend, L., Ragnarsson, A., Mathews, C., Johnston, L. G., Ekström, A. M., Thorson, A. E., & Chopra, M. (2010) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732310378296 · Cited by 44
“Finally, authors of a recent review of 123 studies conducted internationally concluded that RDS is an effective strategy to sample high-risk, hard-to-reach, and socially networked populations for HIV biological and behavioral surveillance (Malekinejad et al., 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The complex interplay of social networks, geography and HIV risk among Malaysian Drug Injectors: Results from respondent-driven sampling
Zelenev, A., Long, E. F., Bazazi, A. R., Kamarulzaman, A., & Altice, F. L. (2016) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.08.008 · Cited by 42
HIV prevalence among men who have sex with men, transgender women and cisgender male sex workers in sub‐Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta‐analysis
Kloek, M., Bulstra, C. A., van Noord, L., Al‐Hassany, L., Cowan, F. M., & Hontelez, J. A. C. (2022) · Journal of the International AIDS Society · doi:10.1002/jia2.26022 · Cited by 42
“A study that tested for antiretroviral adherence in 183 HIV-infected MSM and transgender women in several sub-Saharan African countries found that only 34% had antiretroviral residues in their blood, and 18% of those were not virally suppressed [80].”
Background
Piloting a Social Networks Strategy to Increase HIV Testing and Counseling Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Greater Accra and Ashanti Region, Ghana
Girault, P., Green, K., Clement, N. F., Rahman, Y. A. A., Adams, B., & Wambugu, S. (2015) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-015-1069-z · Cited by 42
“In addition, the RDS method recommends a dual-incentives scheme to increase recruitment [21].”
ResultInfluential
HIV among injecting drug users: current epidemiology, biologic markers, respondent-driven sampling, and supervised-injection facilities
Jarlais, D. C. D., Arasteh, K., Semaan, S., & Wood, E. (2009) · Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS · doi:10.1097/coh.0b013e32832bbc6f · Cited by 42
Hard-to-Survey Populations and Respondent-Driven Sampling: Expanding the Political Science Toolbox
Khoury, R. B. (2019) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592719003864 · Cited by 45
“A review of RDS for biological and behavioral surveillance of populations at risk for HIV counted 123 surveys as of 2007 (Malekinejad et al. 2008).”
Background
Respondent Driven Sampling for HIV Biological and Behavioral Surveillance in Latin America and the Caribbean
Montealegre, J. R., Johnston, L. G., Murrill, C., & Monterroso, E. (2013) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0466-4 · Cited by 40
“RDS has been widely used for BBSS in international settings [10, 11], with 123 studies conducted in 28 countries by 2008, including 14 studies in LAC.”
MethodSelf-citation
High HIV and hepatitis C prevalence amongst injecting drug users in Mauritius: Findings from a population size estimation and respondent driven sampling survey
Johnston, L. G., Saumtally, A., Corceal, S., Mahadoo, I., & Oodally, F. (2011) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.05.007 · Cited by 39
Self-citation
Filling the Knowledge Gap: Measuring HIV Prevalence and Risk Factors among Men Who Have Sex with Men and Female Sex Workers in Tripoli, Libya
Valadez, J. J., Berendes, S., Jeffery, C., Thomson, J., Othman, H. B., Danon, L., Turki, A. A., Saffialden, R., & Mirzoyan, L. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066701 · Cited by 39
“Slow FSW recruitment has also been reported elsewhere [19,42,43].”
BackgroundMethod
Correlates of Unprotected Receptive Anal Intercourse Among Gay and Bisexual Men: Kampala, Uganda
Raymond, H. F., Kajubi, P., Kamya, M. R., Rutherford, G. W., Mandel, J. S., & McFarland, W. (2009) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-009-9557-7 · Cited by 39
“(Heckathorn 1997; Magnani et al. 2005; Malekinejad et al. 2008).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
Anal Sex Role, Circumcision Status, and HIV Infection Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Chongqing, China
Zhou, C., Raymond, H. F., Ding, X., Lu, R., Xu, J., Wu, G., Feng, L., Fan, S., Li, X., McFarland, W., et al. (2012) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-012-0008-6 · Cited by 38
“Participants Participants were recruited using Respondent-driven Sampling (RDS) a sampling method commonly used with hidden populations for HIV research worldwide (Heckathorn, 1997; Magnani, Sabin, Saidel, & Heckathorn, 2005; Malekinejad et al., 2008).”
Method
HIV Prevalence and Related Risk Factors in Men Who Have Sex with Men in Bamako, Mali: Findings from a Bio-behavioral Survey Using Respondent-Driven Sampling
Lahuerta, M., Patnaik, P., Ballo, T., Telly, N., Knox, J., Traoré, B., Doumbia, S., & Hakim, A. J. (2017) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-017-1793-7 · Cited by 38
“Despite its potential limitations, RDS has been described as the preferred sampling method for populations without a readily available sampling frame [32].”
Sampling and Surveying Hard-to-Reach Populations for Demographic Research
Agadjanian, V., & Zotova, N. (2012) · Demographic Research · doi:10.4054/demres.2012.26.5 · Cited by 38
“…to epidemiologists or substance abuse researchers) (e.g., Heckathorn et al. 2002; Kanouse et al. 1999; MacKellar et al. 2007; Magnani et al. 2005; Malekinejad et al. 2008; Pollack et al. 2005; Wang et al. 2005), the target group of our study represents a fairly large and growing segment of the…”
Background
Awareness and use of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis and factors associated with awareness among MSM in Beijing, China
Sun, Y., Lu, H., Ye, J., Li, D., & Li, G. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-27485-8 · Cited by 36
Effectiveness of Respondent Driven Sampling to Recruit Undocumented Central American Immigrant Women in Houston, Texas for an HIV Behavioral Survey
Montealegre, J. R., Risser, J., Selwyn, B. J., McCurdy, S., & Sabin, K. M. (2012) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-012-0306-y · Cited by 37
“and internationally for HIV behavioral research among SW, MSM, IDU, and high-risk heterosexuals [4, 5].”
Background
Putting Respondent-Driven Sampling on the Map: Insights from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Toledo, L. D. S. G., Codeço, C. T., Bertoni, N., de Albuquerque, E. M., Malta, M., & Bastos, F. I. (2011) · JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes · doi:10.1097/qai.0b013e31821e9981 · Cited by 37
“weighted estimates aiming to compensate for the nonrandomness of the sampling process.(6) As of 2005, the Brazilian Ministry of Health (BMoH), in partnership with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, introduced this methodology in Brazil.”
Background
Men Who Have Sex with Men in Mozambique: Identifying a Hidden Population at High-risk for HIV
Nalá, R., Cummings, B., Horth, R., Inguane, C., Benedetti, M., Chissano, M., Sathane, I., Young, P. W., da Silva, D., Mirjahangir, J., et al. (2014) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-014-0895-8 · Cited by 37
“An increasing interest in the role of HIV transmission through male-to-male sexual contact in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is evidenced by a growing number of research studies seeking to better understand the biological, behavioral and structural factors that affect HIV risk for men who have sex with men (MSM).”
Influential
Reliability and Validity of the Haitian Creole PHQ-9
Marc, L. G., Henderson, W. R., Desrosiers, A., Testa, M. A., Jean, S. E., & Akom, E. E. (2014) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-014-2951-5 · Cited by 38
Comparison of Respondent Driven Sampling Estimators to Determine HIV Prevalence and Population Characteristics among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Moscow, Russia
Wirtz, A. L., Mehta, S. H., Latkin, C. A., Zelaya, C. E., Galai, N., Peryshkina, A., Mogilniy, V., Dzhigun, P., Kostetskaya, I., & Beyrer, C. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155519 · Cited by 36
Association between TLR3 rs3775291 and resistance to HIV among highly exposed Caucasian intravenous drug users
Huik, K., Avi, R., Pauskar, M., Kallas, E., Jõgeda, E., Karki, T., Marsh, K., Jarlais, D. D., Uusküla, A., & Lutsar, I. (2013) · Infection Genetics and Evolution · doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2013.08.008 · Cited by 35
“A total of 345 Caucasian IDUs were recruited by using a respondent-driven sampling methodology (Malekinejad et al., 2008) in the syringe-exchange program in the capital of Estonia, Tallinn in 2011.”
Method
Transfer of sampling methods for studies on most-at-risk populations (MARPs) in Brazil
Barbosa, A., Pascom, A. R. P., Szwarcwald, C. L., Kendall, C., & McFarland, W. (2011) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/s0102-311x2011001300005 · Cited by 35
Self-citation

Authors: Malekinejad, M., Johnston, L. G., Kendall, C., Kerr, L. R. F. S., Rifkin, M. R., & Rutherford, G. W.
Affiliations: University of California, San Francisco (US)
Tulane University (US)
New Mexico State University (US)
Corresponding author: Malekinejad, Mohsen
ORCID: Malekinejad, Mohsen
Johnston, Lisa Grazina
Kendall, Carl
Rutherford, George W.
Venue: AIDS and Behavior
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2008-06-17
Volume: 12
Issue: S1
Pages: 105-130
ISSN: 1090-7165 (ISSN-L)
1573-3254
DOI: 10.1007/s10461-008-9421-1
OpenAlex: W2123624310
Cited by: 433
References: 36
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 44 · 2012: 37
FWCI: 3.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: AIDS and Behavior (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: World Health Organization
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › HIV, Drug Use, Sexual Risk
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Survey Sampling and Estimation Techniques
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Survey Methodology and Nonresponse
Keywords: respondent-driven sampling, HIV surveillance, most-at-risk populations, people who inject drugs, sex workers, recruitment, HIV behavioral surveillance
MeSH terms: Data Collection, Female, Humans, Male, Population Surveillance, Risk-Taking, Sampling Studies, Sexual Behavior, HIV Infections, Internationality

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Using Respondent-Driven Sampling Methodology for HIV Biological and Behavioral Surveillance in International Settings: A Systematic Review

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