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The Impact of Covid-19 Experiences and Associated Stress on Anxiety, Depression, and Functional Impairment in American Adults
Open accessAbstract
Background The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on health and well-being worldwide and there is increasing recognition of the need to understand the psychological impact of COVID-19 experiences and stress in addition to the physical health consequences.Methods The present study examined how experiences related to COVID-19 and associated stress impact, anxiety, depression, and functional impairment in a convenience sample of 565 American adults (57.9% male) recruited through MTURK.Results COVID-19 experiences were consistently associated with higher odds of probable anxiety and depression diagnoses (ORs ≥ 3.0). COVID-19 associated stress also predicted large proportions of variance (R 2 ≥ 30) in anxiety, depression, health anxiety, and functional impairment in latent variable analyses.Conclusions These findings highlight that personal experiences related to the diagnosis of COVID-19, mortality in acquaintances, and COVID-19 associated stress is associated with a greatly elevated risk of emotional disorder symptomatology and that the COVID-19 pandemic may result in increased demand for mental health services.
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“Mental health problems have increased due to the COVID-19 pandemic, prompting numerous disruptions to daily life, unique stressors, increased mental health concerns, and decreased quality of life”
From Examining the effectiveness and acceptability of a group-based ACT intervention delivered by videoconference to international university students during the COVID-19 pandemic. (2024) · cites this paper as Gallagher, Zvolensky, Long, Rogers, & Garey, 2020
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“Several studies showed that during the early months of the pandemic, increased COVID-19 related distress was associated with increased levels of anxiety, stress, and depression (Bitan et al., 2020; Gallagher et al., 2020).”
From The association between facets of mindfulness and COVID-19 related distress: A cross-sectional study (2023) · cites this paper as Gallagher et al., 2020
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BackgroundResultAnxiety During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Web-Based Survey of Thyroid Cancer Survivors
Graves, C. E., Goyal, N. G., Levin, A. O., Nuno, M. A., Kim, J., Campbell, M. J., Shen, W. T., Gosnell, J. E., Roman, S. A., Sosa, J. A., et al. (2022) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.1016/j.eprac.2022.01.002 · Cited by 16
“A 268 multitude of potential causes of pandemic-related psychological distress have been suggested, including 269 economic instability, fear of COVID infection, and media exposure.(17,20) The state of uncertainty, a 270 common condition during the pandemic, may have also negatively influenced mental health and QOL 271…”
BackgroundPedersen, E. R., Davis, J. P., Fitzke, R. E., Lee, D., & Saba, S. K. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00620-0 · Cited by 18
“Current research reveals heightened feelings of anxiety, distress, and traumatic stress among adults during the pandemic (Gallagher et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Rajkumar, 2020).”
BackgroundCarlton, C. N., Garcia, K. M., Andino, M. V., Ollendick, T. H., & Richey, J. A. (2022) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-022-10310-3 · Cited by 18
“In a U.S. sample, increased stress levels during this time were related to increased generalized anxiety, health anxiety, and depression, and experiences related to the contraction of COVID-19 produced higher odds for developing a diagnosis for these disorders (Gallagher et al., 2020).”
BackgroundAutenrieth, L. K., Asselmann, E., Melzig, C. A., & Benke, C. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.07.018 · Cited by 15
Luo, Y. (2021) · JMIR Aging · doi:10.2196/29953 · Cited by 15
“Implications for Practice and Research While previous studies focused on examining depression among younger adults or general adults during the pandemic [7,9-14,38,52], this study found that depression was also prevalent among middle-aged and older adults during the pandemic.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBaldner, C., Santo, D. D., Viola, M., & Pierro, A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19042364 · Cited by 15
“Exceptional pandemic-related requirements have had a major impact on people’s lives, generating a significant amount of stress and uncertainty [4,5] and serving as a real-world test of pro-sociality [6], as individual actions, such as the implementation of adequate preventive behavior, are key to containing the spread…”
BackgroundTran, D. D., Fitzke, R. E., Wang, J., Davis, J. P., & Pedersen, E. R. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221080413 · Cited by 19
“Reports of increased anxiety and psychological distress during the pandemic have been highlighted (Gallagher et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Rajkumar, 2020).”
BackgroundPsychological health in COVID-19 patients after discharge from an intensive care unit
Carola, V., Vincenzo, C., Morale, C., Pelli, M., Rocco, M., & Nicolais, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.951136 · Cited by 17
Positive reappraisal as a stress coping strategy during the COVID-19 pandemic
Varela, J. P. G., Cruz, C., Guerrero, J. G. L., Rodríguez, K. E. S., & Kawas-Valle, O. (2021) · Salud Mental · doi:10.17711/sm.0185-3325.2021.023 · Cited by 15
Development and Validation of the Robust - Pandemic Coping Scale (R-PCS)
Burro, R., Vicentini, G., Rocca, E., Barnaba, V., Hall, R., & Raccanello, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725344 · Cited by 15
Anwar, A., Yadav, U. N., Huda, M. N., Das, S., Rosenbaum, S., Ali, A. R. M. M., Mondal, P. K., Rizwan, A. A. M., Hossain, S. F. A., Das Shuvo, S., et al. (2023) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-023-01101-5 · Cited by 13
“Previous research also highlighted the association between COVID-19-related anxiety and perceived stress (Gallagher et al., 2020; Hu et al., 2021).”
BackgroundVenkatesh, H., Osorno, A. M., Boehm, J. K., & Jenkins, B. N. (2022) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053221120340 · Cited by 15
“3% of Americans had an anxiety disorder (National Institutes of Mental Health, 2017), but 1–3 months into the pandemic, approximately one-third of American adults met the clinical definition of having an anxiety disorder (Gallagher et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialJonikas, J. A., Cook, J. Α., Swarbrick, M. A., Nemec, P. B., Steigman, P. J., Boss, K. A., & Brice, G. H. (2021) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/tbm/ibab013 · Cited by 16
Campisi, T., Nahiduzzaman, K. M., Nikiforiadis, A., Stamatiadis, N., & Basbas, S. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su14105780 · Cited by 13
“Depression status and functional impairment of the adults are analyzed in the USA by [19], and symptoms of anxiety have been verified in university students in China and India, which could be caused by social detachment [20,21].”
BackgroundWeb-based training for post-secondary student well-being during the pandemic: a randomized trial
Wang, Y., & Farb, N. A. S. (2022) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2022.2079637 · Cited by 15
“Elevated stress is strongly linked to acute dysfunction in the form of depression and anxiety disorders (Gallagher et al., 2020; Hammen et al., 2009; Kendler et al., 2003); pandemic-related role loss, anxiety and isolation have undoubtedly contributed to global stress levels and may require…”
BackgroundShek, D. T. L., Chai, W., & Zhou, K. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20115952 · Cited by 12
“As COVID-19 related stress predicted depression [18,19] and PTSD [20,21], and depression [22,23] and PTSD [13] predicted IA during the pandemic, we can also hypothesize the mediating function of depression and PTSD in the relationship between pandemic-related stress and IA.”
BackgroundAutomatic Segmentation of Facial Regions of Interest and Stress Detection Using Machine Learning
Jaramillo-Quintanar, D., Gómez-Reyes, J. K., Morales-Hernandez, L. A., Trejo, B. D., Medina, D. A. R., & Cruz-Albarrán, I. A. (2023) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s24010152 · Cited by 13
“Stress is a pervasive experience that can have negative effects on mental and physical health [1], and the increase in stress in the population in recent years has been great due to external factors such as the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and people’s isolation and return to normal life [2,3].”
BackgroundZhang, Y., Chen, Y., Wang, J., Deng, Y., Peng, D., & Zhao, L. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.564745 · Cited by 13
Palinkas, L. A., Engstrom, A., Whiteside, L., Moloney, K., & Zatzick, D. (2021) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-021-01154-2 · Cited by 14
Lippke, S., Keller, F. M., Derksen, C., Kötting, L., & Dahmen, A. (2022) · Hygiene · doi:10.3390/hygiene2010003 · Cited by 13
Tam, C. C., Qiao, S., Garrett, C. M., Zhang, R., Aghaei, A., Aggarwal, A., Litwin, A. H., & Li, X. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0289413 · Cited by 14
“Existing evidence also indicates that, compared to those who were not diagnosed with COVID-19, COVID-19 survivors reported significantly higher levels of depression and anxiety [30].”
ResultSocial Disconnection and Psychological Distress in Canadian Men During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Simpson, N., Oliffe, J., Rice, S., Kealy, D., Seidler, Z., & Ogrodniczuk, J. S. (2022) · American Journal of Men's Health · doi:10.1177/15579883221078145 · Cited by 13
Foust, J. L., & Taber, J. M. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-023-00413-x · Cited by 13
“In addition, people diagnosed with COVID-19 may report greater stress, anxiety, and depression (Gallagher et al., 2020).”
Mordeno, I. G., Luzano, J. G. C., Gallemit, I. M. J. S., & Gonzaga, E. Z. J. (2023) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22939 · Cited by 15
Srivastava, R., Gupta, S., & Sanjeev, M. A. (2021) · Journal of Public Affairs · doi:10.1002/pa.2791 · Cited by 12
A U.S. National Study of Family Resilience During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Perry, K. J., Penner, F., Contreras, H. T., Santos, R. P., & Sarver, D. E. (2023) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-023-02581-5 · Cited by 12
“For example, COVID-19 exposure and stress are associated with higher levels of individual anxiety (Gallagher et al., 2020).”
BackgroundPandemic Grief Scale in detection of grief reaction among physicians in COVID-19 era
Sayed, S. E., Gomaa, S., Aboelfotoh, S., & Elwasify, M. (2021) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-021-00130-8 · Cited by 11
“Updated study and case reports indicated that functional impairment is a crucial compound of the consequences of the grief after COVID-19 death [5].”
BackgroundOh, H. Y., Goehring, J., Rajkumar, R. P., Besecker, M., Zhou, S., & DeVylder, J. (2021) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2021.09.003 · Cited by 11
Politte‐Corn, M., Nick, E. A., Dickey, L., Pegg, S. L., Cole, D. A., & Kujawa, A. (2022) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2021.40.6.30 · Cited by 12
Hung, W.-L., & Liu, H.-T. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191610374 · Cited by 15
A biopsychosocial framework for recovery from COVID-19
Stuart, K., Faghy, M. A., Bidmead, E., Browning, R., Roberts, C., Grimwood, S., & Winn-Reed, T. (2020) · International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy · doi:10.1108/ijssp-07-2020-0301 · Cited by 11
Twitter Sentiment Analysis During Unlock Period of COVID-19
Sharma, S., & Sharma, A. (2020) · International Conference on Parallel, Distributed and Grid Computing (PDGC) · doi:10.1109/pdgc50313.2020.9315773 · Cited by 12
Rogers, A. H., Garey, L., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2021) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2021.1874504 · Cited by 12
“One relevant factor to pain, and another consequence of COVID-19, is mental health symptoms, including anxiety, depression, worry, and fear (Gallagher et al., 2020; Pfefferbaum & North, 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLuberto, C. M., Wang, A., Li, R., Pagliaro, J. A., Park, E. R., & Bhatt, A. (2022) · International Journal of Cardiology Congenital Heart Disease · doi:10.1016/j.ijcchd.2022.100324 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Gallagher, M. W., Zvolensky, M. J., Long, L. J., Rogers, A. H., & Garey, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Houston (US)
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gallagher, Matthew W.
- Venue
- Cognitive Therapy and Research
- Published
- 2020-08-29
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1043-1051
- ISSN
- 0147-5916 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2819
- PMC
- PMC7456202
- OpenAlex
- W3081595932
- Cited by
- 262
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 11
- FWCI
- 20.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cognitive Therapy and Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, anxiety, depression, functional disability, health anxiety, COVID-19 diagnosis, mental health demand, psychological impact of pandemic
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