Cited by 262COVID-19 and Mental HealthMaternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and PostpartumAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes

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The Impact of Covid-19 Experiences and Associated Stress on Anxiety, Depression, and Functional Impairment in American Adults

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Gallagher, Matthew W., Zvolensky, Michael J., Long, Laura J., Rogers, Andrew H., Garey, Lorra·2020·Cognitive Therapy and Research

DOI 10.1007/s10608-020-10143-yPMC PMC7456202

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Abstract

Background The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on health and well-being worldwide and there is increasing recognition of the need to understand the psychological impact of COVID-19 experiences and stress in addition to the physical health consequences.Methods The present study examined how experiences related to COVID-19 and associated stress impact, anxiety, depression, and functional impairment in a convenience sample of 565 American adults (57.9% male) recruited through MTURK.Results COVID-19 experiences were consistently associated with higher odds of probable anxiety and depression diagnoses (ORs ≥ 3.0). COVID-19 associated stress also predicted large proportions of variance (R 2 ≥ 30) in anxiety, depression, health anxiety, and functional impairment in latent variable analyses.Conclusions These findings highlight that personal experiences related to the diagnosis of COVID-19, mortality in acquaintances, and COVID-19 associated stress is associated with a greatly elevated risk of emotional disorder symptomatology and that the COVID-19 pandemic may result in increased demand for mental health services.

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Result
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Dahmen, A., Keller, F. M., Derksen, C., Kötting, L., & Lippke, S. (2021) · PPmP - Psychotherapie · Psychosomatik · Medizinische Psychologie · doi:10.1055/a-1503-5548 · Cited by 4
Do COVID-19-Related Stress, Being Overweight, and Body Dissatisfaction Contribute to More Disordered Eating in Polish Women?—A Cluster Analysis Approach
Czepczor‐Bernat, K., Modrzejewska, J., Modrzejewska, A., & Matusik, P. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182413100 · Cited by 5
“The situation has given rise to concerns for one’s own health [4,5], and many reports show how COVID-19 and restrictions related to it can affect both psyche and soma [2,6–11].”
Background
The association of hematological inflammatory markers and psychological function in COVID‐19 patients: A cross‐sectional study
Khorasanchi, Z., Rashidmayvan, M., Hasanzadeh, E., Moghadam, M. R. S. F., Afkhami, N., Asadiyan‐Sohan, P., Fard, M. V., Mohammadhasani, K., Varaste, N., Sharifan, P., et al. (2023) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.15889 · Cited by 5
Impulsivity and Its Association with Depression and Anxiety in the Normal Egyptian Population Post COVID-19 Pandemic
Ismael, M. S., Elgendy, M. O., Binsaleh, A. Y., Saleh, A., Abdelrahim, M. E. A., & Osama, H. (2024) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina60081367 · Cited by 4
“Individuals who suffer from depression often exhibit a decline in their level of productivity, a diminished ability to engage in interpersonal contact, and a sense of disconnection from social networks [40].”
Background
DOES SOCIAL SUPPORT AFFECT PERCEIVED STRESS? A RESEARCH DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMİC İN TURKEY
ORHAN, S. (2021) · New Era Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Studies · doi:10.51296/newera.63 · Cited by 4
Issues of COVID-19-related distance learning for children with neuronopathic mucopolysaccharidoses
Eisengart, J. B., Esler, A., Ellinwood, N. M., Hudock, R. L., King, K. E., Klein, T. L., Lee, C.-M., Morton, J., Stephens, K., Ziegler, R. S., et al. (2021) · Molecular Genetics and Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.ymgme.2021.06.012 · Cited by 4
Leading Through Covid-19: The Impact of Pandemic Stress and What Leaders Can Do About It
Fernandez, K. C., & Clerkin, C. (2021) · doi:10.35613/ccl.2021.2044 · Cited by 4
“There has also been a focus on the idea of “COVID-19 associated stress”; for example in one study, researchers found that COVID-related stress was significantly positively related to anxiety, depression, and functional impairment (Gallagher et al., 2020).”
Why people fail to participate in annual skin cancer screening: creation of the perceptions of annual skin cancer screening scale (PASCSS)
Howard, M. C. (2022) · Diagnosis · doi:10.1515/dx-2022-0077 · Cited by 3
“Many authors have used MTurk to study health perceptions and behaviors, as it can provide diverse and representative samples [31 – 33].”
Background
Behandlung des schweren Post-Covid-Syndroms
Adorjan, K., Ruzicka, M., Ibarra, G., & Stubbe, H. C. (2023) · MMW - Fortschritte der Medizin · doi:10.1007/s15006-022-2187-y · Cited by 3
“Schlafstörungen können als eigenständige Komplika tion oder als Hinweis auf Angst oder depressive Stö rung auftreten [20].”
A Cross-Sectional Assessment of Parental Concerns in the Pediatric Surgery Department during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Gruescu, A. C. S., Popoiu, C. M., Levai, M. C., Tudor, R., Fericean, R. M., & Riviș, M. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11091330 · Cited by 3
“Although we did not find a direct association between vaccination status and the questionnaire scores, other studies have reported that vaccination status can influence parental anxiety and stress levels during the COVID-19 pandemic [29].”
Result
Spezifische Teilhaberisiken und -chancen
Wacker, E., Beck, I., Brandt, M., Köbsell, S., Lippke, S., & Niehaus, M. (2023) · Gesundheitsförderung - Rehabilitation - Teilhabe · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-40760-5_3 · Cited by 3
Dual Electronic and Combustible Cigarette Use: Understanding the Relation of Cannabis Use with E-Cigarette Outcomes
Buckner, J. D., Shepherd, J. M., Stoneking, F. R., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2023) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2023.2275570 · Cited by 3
“Total scores can range from 0 to 20 and the measure had good internal consistency in prior work (Gallagher et al., 2020) and in the current investigation (α = 0.94).”
ResultInfluentialSelf-citation
COVID-19–Related Functional Impairment in a Community Sample of Korean Adults: Associations With Depression, COVID-19 Infection Fear, and Resilience
Park, Y.-J., Jung, Y., Kim, M.-D., & Bahk, W. (2022) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2022.0138 · Cited by 3
The Role of Personality Risk and Protective Factors in Living with Covid-19: A Longitudinal Study
Shulman, S., Stein, J. Y., Melamed, O. C., Muchaeli, Y., & Hakhmigari, M. K. (2023) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-023-09439-6 · Cited by 5
Comparison of anxiety and depressive symptoms of head and neck cancer patients in a closed-loop management system before and during the 2019 coronavirus pandemic: a comparative study
Liu, J., Yu, L., Qiu, T., Luo, Y., Fang, X., Yang, F., Xu, X., & Zeng, Q. (2022) · Annals of Palliative Medicine · doi:10.21037/apm-22-1013 · Cited by 3
The association between facets of mindfulness and COVID-19 related distress: A cross-sectional study
Boekhorst, M. G. B. M., & Duijndam, S. (2023) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103826 · Cited by 2
Effects of COVID-19 pandemic and their lockdown on psychological problems of cancer patients: a systematic review
Jafari, H. S., Heidari, M., Sheikhi, R. A., ZEBARDAST, F., MOHAMMADI, M., & Nemati, S. (2022) · Minerva Psychiatry · doi:10.23736/s2724-6612.22.02344-2 · Cited by 2
Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Oral Health Perception, Hygiene Behaviors, and Oral Health-Related Quality of Life in Myanmar
Thwin, K. M., Lin, W. T., Kaneko, N., Takehara, S., & Ogawa, H. (2024) · Journal of International Society of Preventive and Community Dentistry · doi:10.4103/jispcd.jispcd_182_24 · Cited by 2
Acute Reactivity of Individuals With High and Low Levels of Ongoing Stress
Naliboff, B. D., Ravichandran, S., Labus, J. S., Hassouna, R., Nevé, B. L., Lourenço, J., Maillard, A., Vaughan, A., Liu, X. C., Mayer, E. A., et al. (2025) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000001441 · Cited by 2
Adaptation of the Turkish version of the obsession with COVID-19 scale (TR-OCS): its association with psychological distress and resilience
Kartol, A., & Söner, O. (2022) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-022-00242-y · Cited by 3
“…have investigated the depression, anxiety, and stress levels of individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic (Arafa et al., 2021; Feng et al., 2020; Gallagher et al., 2020; Lakhan et al., 2020; Satici et al., 2021; Stanton et al., 2020; Verma & Mishra, 2020; Yıldırım & Güler, 2021; Zandifar et …”
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COVID-related stressors on career insecurity: The moderating effects of family support and openness
Tian, Y., Luan, Y., & Wang, N. (2022) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.1080/14330237.2022.2121482 · Cited by 2
Anxiety as a mediator in the relationship between the socioeconomic impact of COVID-19 and quality of life: a cross-sectional study in Vietnam
Dao, P. Q., Dat, P. T., & Khoa, N. N. Đ. (2023) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2023.2188231 · Cited by 2
“Many previous studies that found that the negative effects of the epidemic on an individual resulted in a higher level of anxiety (Avery et al., 2020; Gallagher et al., 2020).”
Differences in Functional Level and Central Symptom of Network Structures in the Patients Seeking Treatment for Panic Disorder Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Kim, H.-J., Bang, M., Park, C. I., Pae, C., & Lee, S. (2023) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2022.0318 · Cited by 2
The association of self-perceived changes due to COVID-19 with mental and physical health among adult primary care patients with multiple chronic conditions: A US-based longitudinal study
Bonnell, L. N., Clifton, J., Natkin, L. W., Hitt, J. R., & Littenberg, B. (2024) · Journal of Multimorbidity and Comorbidity · doi:10.1177/26335565231222148 · Cited by 2
“27 Less than a month into the pandemic, a sample of the general population from Italy re-ported worse mental health than before COVID-19.”
Background
The effects of person-centred active rehabilitation on symptoms of suspected Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: A mixed-methods single case design
Hearn, R., Selfe, J., Cordero, M. I., & Dobbin, N. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0302260 · Cited by 3
Anxiety sensitivity and COVID-19 mental health, fatigue, and well-being: a longitudinal examination among adults from the United States during March–October 2020
Zvolensky, M. J., Robison, J. H., Ayers, Z. S., Senger, A. R., Clausen, B. K., Businelle, M. S., & Gallagher, M. W. (2024) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2024.2360054 · Cited by 2
“Participants signed up to participate in a research study designed to assess mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic (Gallagher et al., 2020, 2022).”
Self-citation
Mental Health and Well-Being During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Well-Being as a Mediator of Pandemic Stress
Ohrt, J. H., Clarke, P. B., Conley, A. H., & Broda, M. D. (2024) · Journal of Mental Health Counseling · doi:10.17744/mehc.46.1.02 · Cited by 2
Minority Stress Experienced by LGBTQ Online Communities during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Yuan, Y., Verma, G., Keller, B., & Aledavood, T. (2023) · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v17i1.22201 · Cited by 6
“Recent studies on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic show a considerable increase in psychological expressions, including expressions related to mental health issues and support, among the general population (Saha et al. 2020; Gallagher et al. 2020).”
Background
Adaptation and psychometric evaluation of the COVID-19 stress scales in Turkish sample
Şahin, M. D., Şen, S., & Güler, D. (2022) · International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education · doi:10.21449/ijate.1067542 · Cited by 2
Burdens and resources of Austrian clinical psychologists: results of a qualitative study two years into the COVID-19 pandemic
Jesser, A., Steinböck, A., Pammer, B., Ghorab, T., Weber, M., Schaffler, Y., Probst, T., Felnhofer, A., Kothgassner, O., Pieh, C., et al. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-01714-9 · Cited by 2
Validation of the Mental Health Checklist (MHCL) during COVID‐19 lockdown
So, C. J., Kim, J., Cifre, A. B., Gonzalez, R. D., Bower, J. L., & Alfano, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22600 · Cited by 2
“…impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on mental and physical health outcomes, including increased rates of probable anxiety and depressive disorders (Gallagher et al., 2020; Rossi et al., 2020), trauma/ stressor‐related symptoms (Czeisler et al., 2021; Tan et al., 2020), insomnia (Rossi et al.,…”
Background
Psychological Perspectives on COVID-19
Hosseini-Nezhad, S., Safdar, S. F., Hosseini-Nezhad, P., & Luu, L. A. N. (2022) · Contributions to economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89996-7_14 · Cited by 2
The Thought of Death in a Pandemic Era: Can Anxiety Determine the Nexus between the Accessibility, Availability and Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for COVID-19 and Work Behaviour among Aviation Workers?
Nkrumah, E. N. K., Liu, S., Fiergbor, D. D., & Akoto, L. S. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare10020215 · Cited by 4
Effects of Pre-Existing Social Anxiety on Mental Health Outcomes During the COVID-19 PandemicPreprint
Ho, J. T. K., & Moscovitch, D. A. (2020) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/b6xjm · Cited by 2
Psychological Impacts of COVID-19 and Its Associated Factors Among People Living in Abha City, Saudi ArabiaPreprint
Asiri, E. J., Dawria, A., Narapureddy, B. R., Reddy, L. K. V., Zahrani, Y. I., Mugaiahgari, B. K. M., Mohieldin, A., Khan, M. S., Muzammil, K., & Altijani, A. A. G. (2023) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202306.0435.v1 · Cited by 1
Anxiety and depression among hypertensive patients during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study from Kathmandu Metropolitan, Nepal
Dilasha, K. C., Kaphle, H. P., Shrestha, D., & Neupane, N. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0308048 · Cited by 1
The Role of Religious Involvement as a Moderator of Perceived Health and Somatic Anxiety Among Hispanic Seventh-Day Adventists During COVID-19
Ramirez, O., Cort, M. A., Ashley, G., & Moral, M. A. (2025) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/s10943-025-02283-w · Cited by 1
“The COVID-19 pandemic caused a significant increase in mental health problems (Gallagher et al., 2020; Pfeferbaum & North, 2020; Rajkumar, 2020; Wang et al., 2020).”
Protective Role of Regular Physical Activity on Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic
de Sá, V. R., & Padovan‐Neto, F. E. (2025) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-025-10148-4 · Cited by 1
Psychological Distress in Older Adults Living in Puerto Rico during COVID-19
Camacho, D., Morgan, M., Vazquez, J., Moxley, J. H., & Burnette, D. (2025) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · doi:10.1007/s10823-025-09539-8 · Cited by 1
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Examining the effectiveness of self-narrative diary intervention for mental health during the pandemic
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Perceived Control, Distress Tolerance, and Anxiety Sensitivity: Evaluating Longitudinal Associations with Posttraumatic Stress During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Senger, A. R., Jo, D., Zvolensky, M. J., & Gallagher, M. W. (2025) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-025-10644-8 · Cited by 1
“The current study sought to address the gap in the literature by conducting secondary analysis of longitudinal data collected during the COVID-19 pandemic (Gallagher et al., 2020).”
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Impacts on Employee Well-Being in the Finance Industry Post-pandemic
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Covid-19 Geçirmiş Hekimlerin Deneyimleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma
Güngör, S., & Filiz, M. (2023) · Abant Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.11616/asbi.1216363 · Cited by 1
Daily Effects of COVID-19 News on Personal Protective Behaviors Through COVID-19 Anxiety: The Significance of Direct Wuhan Epidemic Experience
Du, J., Zheng, X.-N., Choi, J. N., & Xiang, Y. (2023) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-023-10210-0 · Cited by 1
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Deep Representations of First-person Pronouns for Prediction of Depression Symptom Severity
Ren, X., Burkhardt, H. A., Areán, P. A., Hull, T. D., & Cohen, T. (2023) · PubMed Central · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2310.03232 · Cited by 1

Authors: Gallagher, M. W., Zvolensky, M. J., Long, L. J., Rogers, A. H., & Garey, L.
Affiliations: University of Houston (US)
The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center (US)
Corresponding author: Gallagher, Matthew W.
ORCID: Gallagher, Matthew W.
Zvolensky, Michael J.
Long, Laura J.
Rogers, Andrew H.
Garey, Lorra
Venue: Cognitive Therapy and Research
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2020-08-29
Volume: 44
Issue: 6
Pages: 1043-1051
ISSN: 0147-5916 (ISSN-L)
1573-2819
DOI: 10.1007/s10608-020-10143-y
PMC: PMC7456202
OpenAlex: W3081595932
Cited by: 262
References: 45
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 11
FWCI: 20.62
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
www.springer.com/tdm (vor)
Locations: Cognitive Therapy and Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic, anxiety, depression, functional disability, health anxiety, COVID-19 diagnosis, mental health demand, psychological impact of pandemic

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The Impact of Covid-19 Experiences and Associated Stress on Anxiety, Depression, and Functional Impairment in American Adults

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