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Childhood Executive Function Continues to Predict Outcomes in Young Adult Females with and Without Childhood-Diagnosed ADHD
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We prospectively followed an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of preadolescent girls with ADHD (n = 140) and matched comparison girls (n = 88) over a period of 10 years, from middle childhood through late adolescence/young adulthood. Our aim was to examine the ability of childhood measures of executive function (EF) to predict functional outcomes at follow-up. Measures of EF comprised the childhood predictors, with academic, socioemotional, occupational, and global functioning serving as young adult criterion measures. Results indicated that childhood EF - particularly measures of global EF and working memory - predicted academic and occupational functioning across our entire sample (independent of diagnostic group status), but diagnostic status (ADHD versus comparison) moderated the association between (a) working memory and reading achievement and (b) a global EF measure and suspensions/expulsions. That is, in the ADHD group, low working memory predicted poor reading scores and impaired global EF predicted higher suspensions/expulsions, but this was not the case in the comparison group. Overall, these results extend previous findings of associations between EF and adolescent outcomes in girls with and without ADHD into young adulthood. Findings continue to suggest the importance of assessing and developing interventions that target EF impairments early in life in order to prevent long-term difficulties across a range of important functional domains.
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“and longitudinally predicts reduced reading skills into young adulthood (Miller et al., 2012).”
From Do Working Memory Deficits Underlie Reading Problems in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)? (2019) · cites this paper as Miller et al., 2012
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Self-citationParent–teen behavior therapy + motivational interviewing for adolescents with ADHD.
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“A significant relationship between EF and academics has also been found longitudinally in a sample of girls with ADHD followed from middle childhood through late adolescence/young adulthood (Miller and Hinshaw 2010; Miller et al. 2012).”
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Bredemeier, K., & Miller, I. W. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.06.005 · Cited by 160
“…disinhibition’ (which also included measures of temperament, etc.; Tarter et al., 2004), another combined suicide attempts and NSSI “episodes” (Miller et al., 2012), and one did not provide sufficient details about the neuropsychological assessment to determine if the EF measure met our…”
BackgroundHilton, C. L., Cumpata, K., Klohr, C. L., Gaetke, S., Artner, A., Johnson, H., & Dobbs, S. (2013) · American Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.5014/ajot.2014.008664 · Cited by 171
Self-regulation of frontal-midline theta facilitates memory updating and mental set shifting
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“This issue becomes imperative since EFs are crucial for success in daily life as they mediate learning processes (St Clair-Thompson et al., 2010), the control of emotions (e.g., Fikke et al., 2011), and predict academic achievement and social functioning (e.g., Miller et al., 2012b).”
BackgroundLong-Term Memory Performance in Adult ADHD: A Meta-Analysis
Skodzik, T., Holling, H., & Pedersen, A. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054713510561 · Cited by 120
“Comparable with the results of the sensitivity analysis stated earlier, we found slightly altered effect sizes and heterogeneity values when the outcomes of Müller et al. (2007) were excluded from the analyses: d = −0.51, p < .001, and Q(22) = 49.71, p < .001, I(2) = 57.76%. 3. When excluding the outcome of Müller et…”
ResultInfluentialExecutive functioning rating scales: Ecologically valid or construct invalid?
Soto, E. F., Kofler, M. J., Singh, L. J., Wells, E. L., Irwin, L. N., Groves, N. B., & Miller, C. E. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000681 · Cited by 115
“…deficits negatively impact areas of social/peer and family relations (Clark et al., 2002; Gewirtz et al., 2009; Kofler et al., 2016), organizational skills (Kofler et al., 2018), occupational functioning (Barkley et al., 2008; Miller et al., 2012), and academic achievement (Best et al., 2009).”
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“, 2011) and longitudinal associations (Miller et al., 2012; Sarver et al., 2012) between working memory storage/rehearsal subcomponents and individual differences in specific academic domains.”
BackgroundInterventions for Executive Function Deficits in Children and Adolescents
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“The importance of working memory deficits was also demonstrated in a longitudinal design that stretched into early adulthood, much like in the present study, but that sample consisted only of girls (Miller et al., 2012).”
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“…demonstrated associations between children with impairing psychopathology and exclusion from school, particularly among children with ADHD (Barkley et al. 1991; Rohde et al. 1999; Norwich, 2002; Bauermeister et al. 2007; Miller et al. 2012) and depression (Meyer et al. 1993; Rushton et al. 2002).”
BackgroundExecutive Function Training for Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
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“[8] Therefore, it is important to target EF impairments early in life to prevent long-term difficulties.[9,10]”
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“Given that EF deficits are clearly associated with academic performance in ADHD (Biederman et al., 2004; Loo et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2012; Vexelman & Tannock, 2011), it may not be surprising that both MEFS performance and academic performance ratings were worse in the “only teachers reported…”
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Clinical correlates of working memory deficits in youth with and without ADHD: A controlled study
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Executive functions in girls with ADHD followed prospectively into young adulthood.
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Self-citationPredicting Impairment in College Students With ADHD: The Role of Executive Functions
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“Specifically, both symptoms of inattention (Langberg et al., 2011) and deficits in executive function (Miller et al., 2012) have been shown to predict the academic achievement of youth with ADHD.”
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“…absence of a comorbid reading disorder as evidenced by their lower scores on standardized reading tests (Frazier et al. 2007; Loe and Feldman 2007; Miller et al. 2012), classroom grades in reading (Loe and Feldman 2007), and productivity when engaged in reading related classroom activities…”
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“Taken together, the literature at this time indicates (a) strong cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between working memory and reading performance in developmental and ADHD samples (Sarver et al. 2012; Miller et al. 2012), and that (b) reading-related impairments in ADHD may no longer be detectable after ac…”
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Evaluating the viability of a structured observational approach to assessing early self-regulation
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“Interestingly, the mechanisms thought to underlie the academic impairments of youth with ADHD, deficits in executive function (Miller et al., 2012), are very similar to the deficits thought to lead to poor school performance in youth with sleep disturbances (Beebe, 2011).”
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“Two studies used the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV, Shaffer et al. (2000); Miller, Nevado-Montenegro, and Hinshaw (2011); Bauermeister et al. (2007) whilst both Rohde and colleagues and Barkley and colleagues used the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL, Achenbach (1991)); Barkley…”
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“Eight papers reported data from a clinical sample, constituting the majority of the collected studies (22, 23, 25–27, 31, 32, 34); however, among these eight papers, five (26, 27, 31, 32, 34) were analyses from the same study population [for additional details, see Hinshaw et al.”
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Speed and accuracy on the Hearts and Flowers task interact to predict child outcomes.
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“We identified 12 studies that investigated SI or thoughts as one of their outcomes [23, 26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41, 43, 45], while 11 studies focused on aspects of self-injurious behavior [28, 29, 33, 34, 37, 43–46, 49, 52] (Table 2).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA critical appraisal of the role of neuropsychological deficits in preschool ADHD
Sjöwall, D., & Thorell, L. B. (2018) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2018.1447096 · Cited by 43
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Reading Performance of Young Adults With ADHD Diagnosed in Childhood
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“Furthermore, it is important to highlight the noteworthy concordance between the self-report and the informant-report on rating behaviors related to working memory and metacognition, which are essential processes in fluency and text comprehension in adults and adolescents with ADHD (Katz et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2…”
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“I’m Doing Okay”: Strengths and Resilience of Children With and Without ADHD
Charabin, E., Climie, E. A., Miller, C., Jelinkova, K., & Wilkins, J. (2023) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547231167512 · Cited by 37
“, inattention, executive functioning) are linked to academic difficulties (Miller et al., 2012) that are likely to impact school functioning.”
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“Many of these issues are related to impairments in executive function (EF); [4-6] and motor skills [7].”
Executive function in HIV-affected children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analyses
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“However, it should be kept in mind that EF deficits in childhood play a relevant role in the academic problems of adolescents with ADHD [68,69].”
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“In addition, they tend to exhibit executive function deficits, causing impairment in function in daily life(34) and leading to negative effects on academic and occupational functions in adulthood.(35) WFIRS-P is a social function assessment tool which is compiled based on the characteristics of ADHD disease and can re…”
Castagna, P. J., Calamia, M. R., Roye, S., Greening, S. G., & Davis, T. E. (2019) · ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders · doi:10.1007/s12402-019-00306-7 · Cited by 23
Attention and executive delays in early childhood: a meta-analysis of neurodevelopmental conditions
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“Prospectively, childhood EF predicted academic achievement in young adult females over and above IQ and psychopathology (Miller et al., 2012).”
BackgroundA systematic review of the utility of continuous performance tests among adults with ADHD
Varela, J. L., Magnante, A. T., Miskey, H. M., Ord, A. S., Eldridge, A. H., & Shura, R. D. (2024) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2024.2315740 · Cited by 19
Childhood Executive Functioning Predicts Young Adult Outcomes in22q11.2Deletion Syndrome
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“Childhood EF abilities predict adolescent and adult academic and occupational functioning in individuals with and without ADHD (Miller et al., 2012).”
BackgroundUsing task performance to inform treatment planning for youth with ADHD: A systematic review
Molitor, S. J., & Langberg, J. M. (2017) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.007 · Cited by 17
“…outcomes not significantly moderated by ADHD dx - Exploratory regressions with ADHD-only sample found no sig. relationships after controlling for IQ Miller et al., 2012 - ADHD (n=140): 100% female - 66% ADHD-C, 34% ADHD-I - Control (n=88): 100% female - Full sample: M age = 9.6 years at…”
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Multivariate base rates for the assessment of executive functioning among children and adolescents
Cook, N. E., Karr, J. E., Brooks, B. L., Garcia-Barrera, M. A., Holdnack, J. A., & Iverson, G. L. (2019) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2018.1543389 · Cited by 18
Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Suicide: A Narrative Review
Gagliano, A., Costanza, C., Modica, I. D., Carucci, S., Donno, F., Germanò, E., Abbate, C. S., Roccella, M., & Vetri, L. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13061627 · Cited by 20
Bangirana, P., Conroy, A. L., Opoka, R. O., Semrud‐Clikeman, M., Jang, J. H., Apayi, C., Kakuru, A., Muhindo, M. K., Georgieff, M., Dorsey, G., et al. (2022) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/cid/ciac815 · Cited by 14
O’Grady, S. M., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04515-3 · Cited by 15
“It is often considered a more “global” measure of executive functioning [62].”
BackgroundSelf-citationLembke, E. J., Linderkamp, F., & Casale, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1321373 · Cited by 26
Cole, A. M., Chan, E. S. M., Gaye, F., Harmon, S. L., & Kofler, M. J. (2024) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000960 · Cited by 23
Neurocognitive predictors of length of stay within a children’s psychiatric inpatient program
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Boschloo, A., A, L. K. M., Aben, A., de Groot, R. H. M., & Jolles, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00287 · Cited by 14
Putkinen, V., Saarikivi, K., Chan, T. M. V., & Tervaniemi, M. H. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15262 · Cited by 15
“Children's and adolescents' EFs skills predict various societally important phenomena such as academic performance, health, and occupational success (Miller et al., 2012; Moffitt et al., 2011; St ClairThompson & Gathercole, 2006).”
BackgroundYegencik, B., Bell, B. T., & Deniz, E. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1611145 · Cited by 24
Trauma-Exposed Infants and Toddlers: A Review of Impacts and Evidence-Based Interventions
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Multilingualism impacts children's executive function and core autism symptoms
Romero, C., Goodman, Z. T., Kupis, L. B., Dirks, B., Parlade, M. V., Beaumont, A. L., Cardona, S. M., Nomi, J. S., Alessandri, M., Perry, L. K., et al. (2024) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3260 · Cited by 20
“EF also has far-reaching effects on skills necessary for daily functioning including academic and occupational attainment (Best & Miller, 2010; Miller et al., 2012), interpersonal problems (e.g., De Panfilis et al., 2013; Sprague et al., 2011), and physical health (e.g., Falkowski et al., 2014;…”
Validity and reliability of the executive function scale in Cuban university student
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Updated profiles of everyday executive function in youth with Down syndrome using the BRIEF‐2
Csumitta, K. D., Stephan, C., LaQuaglia, R. I., Miller, E. E., & Lee, N.-H. (2021) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12879 · Cited by 13
Fried, R. S., Abrams, J., Hall, A., Feinberg, L. K., Pope, A. L., & Biederman, J. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054717730612 · Cited by 16
“Eight articles examined the effects of WM deficits on social functioning (Bunford et al., 2015; Chiang & Gau, 2014; Fried et al., 2016; Kofler et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2012; Rinsky & Hinshaw, 2011; Sjowall & Thorell, 2014; Tseng & Gau, 2013).”
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A Value Chain Approach for Attracting, Educating, and Transitioning Students to the IT Profession
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Developing the Symptoms and Functional Impairment Rating Scale: A Multi-Dimensional ADHD Scale
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“Such a process of expression, performance, and monitoring is based on a combination of executive function abilities such as attention, inhibition, initiation, working memory, shifting, and planning and organization [40].”
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Mental Health in Emerging Adults With ADHD and/or Specific Learning Disabilities: A Scoping Review
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Haugan, A.-L. J., Sund, A. M., Thomsen, P. H., Lydersen, S., & Nøvik, T. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.834356 · Cited by 8
“Dysfunctional EFs may prevent the acquisition and implementation of skills, leading to difficulties handling everyday challenges related to academic functioning (23), interpersonal problems (24), and mental health (25–27).”
BackgroundAssessment of attention and working memory among young adults using computer games
Basu, S., Saha, S., Das, S., Guha, R., Mukherjee, J., & Mahadevappa, M. (2022) · Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing · doi:10.1007/s12652-022-04494-5 · Cited by 6
Pesce, M., Rizzuto, A., Fratta, I. L., Tatangelo, R., Campagna, G., Iannasso, M., Ferrone, A., Franceschelli, S., Speranza, L., Patruno, A., et al. (2015) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2015.11.007 · Cited by 6
Childhood ADHD and Executive Functioning: Unique Predictions of Early Adolescent Depression
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“Additionally, ADHD and EF each predicted academic achievement (Best et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2012) and social functioning (Diamantopoulou et al.”
BackgroundExploring Working Memory, Self-Criticism, and Rumination as Factors Related to Self-Harm
Carpenter, R. K., & Alloway, T. P. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221074258 · Cited by 8
“Working memory is part of a constellation of executive function skills, including updating and monitoring information, as well as shifting between mental tasks, inhibiting inactive tasks, reasoning, and problem solving (Miyake et al., 2000).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Miller, M., Nevado-Montenegro, A. J., & Hinshaw, S. P.
- Affiliations
- University of California System (US)
- Corresponding author
- Miller, Meghan
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology
- Published
- 2011-11-29
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 657-668
- ISSN
- 0091-0627 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2835
- PMC
- PMC3974898
- OpenAlex
- W1987589116
- Cited by
- 147
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 5.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Public Health Service (R01 45064)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH121416, R01MH045064)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- executive function, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, young adult women, working memory, academic functioning, reading achievement, occupational functioning, social-emotional functioning, long-term outcomes, preadolescent girls, early intervention
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Interpersonal Relations, Memory, Prospective Studies, Punishment, Reading, Suicide, Attempted, Case-Control Studies, Young Adult, Executive Function
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