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Determinants of generalized trust: A cross-country comparison
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“imbued societal interactions with a nonhierarchical quality that allowed social trust to flourish [33,34]”
From Trust, transparency, and openness: How inclusion of cultural values shapes Nordic national public policy strategies for artificial intelligence (AI) (2020) · cites this paper as [34]
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Jagers, S. C., Sjöstedt, M., Sundström, A., Linell, A., & Ntuli, H. (2021) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.13048 · Cited by 6
Pilving, T., Kull, T., Suškevičs, M., & Viira, A. (2021) · European Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.54055/ejtr.v30i.2596 · Cited by 6
“in society complicates the formation of tourism collaboration networks (Bjørnskov, 2007).”
BackgroundMuminović, A., & Efendić, A. (2022) · Journal of Southeast European and Black Sea Studies · doi:10.1080/14683857.2022.2121250 · Cited by 6
“a belief in the trustworthiness of strangers (Bjørnskov 2006), whereas our propensity towards risk is more akin to a trait (Josef et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialChinese aid and social ties in Africa: Evidence from sub-national aid projects
Adera, A. (2023) · Cogent Economics & Finance · doi:10.1080/23322039.2023.2196843 · Cited by 6
“Consistent with the evidence that higher relative earnings of a neighbor are bad for one’s happiness (Bjørnskov, 2007; Luttmer, 2005), perceived equality and happiness are positively related.”
BackgroundPoma, E., Pistoresi, B., & Giovinazzo, C. (2023) · International Journal of Social Economics · doi:10.1108/ijse-08-2022-0549 · Cited by 6
Mewes, J. (2023) · Journal of European Social Policy · doi:10.1177/09589287231217377 · Cited by 10
“…such as Protestantism (Delhey and Newton, 2005), ethnic diversity (Delhey and Newton, 2005; Dinesen and Sønderskov, 2015; Ziller, 2015), monarchism (Bjørnskov, 2007) and micro-level factors such as intelligence and genetic dispositions (Sturgis et al., 2010; Reimann et al., 2017), many studies…”
BackgroundFractionalization and well-being: Evidence from a new South African data set
Hinks, T. (2012) · New Zealand Economic Papers · doi:10.1080/00779954.2012.691787 · Cited by 6
Atomic bombs and the long-run effect on trust: Experiences in Hiroshima and Nagasaki
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“This is because they became 15 years old after 1946. particularized types (Bjørnskov, 2006; Uslaner, 2002).”
BackgroundSocial Trust Fosters an Ability to Help Those in Need: Jewish Refugees in the Nazi Era
Bjørnskov, C. (2014) · Political Studies · doi:10.1111/1467-9248.12120 · Cited by 6
“In other words, hightrust individuals would be more willing to engage in rescue efforts since their radius of trust is wider: more people would be considered members of their ‘moral community’ (cf. Fukuyama, 1995; Uslaner, 2002; Bjørnskov, 2007), and thus more people of different races, religions or personal convictio…”
Diversity and Trust in Hong Kong: An Examination of Tin Shui Wai, Hong Kong’s ‘City of Sadness’
Rochelle, T. L. (2014) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-014-0592-z · Cited by 6
“Research reports that levels of generalised trust are not just lower among ethnic minorities themselves, but that they are also suppressed among majority populations when faced with diverse surroundings (Banting et al. 2006; Bjørnskov 2006), while Putnam (2007) argues that, at least in the short term, diversity is lik…”
BackgroundReligious Transformations and Generalized Trust in Sub-Saharan Africa
Manglos‐Weber, N. D. (2016) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-016-1383-5 · Cited by 6
Inequality, social capital, and varieties of capitalism in Latin America
Pérez, N. P. B., Saucedo-Acosta, E. J., & Canal, D. D. D. C. (2020) · Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja · doi:10.1080/1331677x.2020.1844583 · Cited by 7
“They concluded that there is a correlation between income inequalities and generalised trust for developed countries but that this effect is not significant for developing regions (Bjørnskov, 2007; Gallego, 2016; Olivera, 2015).”
Vallier, K. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190887223.003.0003 · Cited by 6
Parental divorce and other determinants of interpersonal trust: Evidence from HILDA panel data
Viitanen, T. K. (2014) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 6
Are Joiners Trusters? A Panel Analysis of Participation and Generalized Trust
Botzen, K. (2015) · Zeitschrift für Soziologie · doi:10.1515/zfsoz-2015-0502 · Cited by 5
“…factors like the quality of government, political institutions, income equality, cultural values, ethnic heterogeneity, and religious diversity are determinants of trust on a macro level (Bjørnskov 2006; Delhey & Newton 2003, 2005; Freitag 2006; Freitag & Bühlmann 2009; Torpe & Lolle 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialEvaluation of Social Capital in LEADER: From Theory to Practice
Pisani, E. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54277-5_7 · Cited by 6
Trust and the Growth of GovernmentPreprint
GAREN, J. E., & Clark, J. R. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2366081 · Cited by 6
“Bjornskov (2006) also considers cross-country determinants of generalized trust.”
The interrelation of informal institutions and governance quality in shaping Welfare State attitudesPreprint
Pitlik, H., & Kouba, L. (2013) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 6
Staubli, S. (2014) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.5167/uzh-164448 · Cited by 6
Robbins, B. G. (2020) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/9ch5m · Cited by 6
Ethnic fractionalization and informal entrepreneurship: An institutional logics perspective
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Cao, H., Kong, X., & Tsang, A. (2024) · Accounting Horizons · doi:10.2308/horizons-2022-196 · Cited by 5
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What Do Survey Measures of Trust Actually Measure?
Brehm, J., & Savel, M. (2019) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004390430_013 · Cited by 5
¿Importa la cultura durante una pandemia? Una aproximación a la crisis española de la COVID-19
Bruna, F., Massó, M., & Gómez, I. N. (2020) · Revista Española de Sociología · doi:10.22325/fes/res.2020.48 · Cited by 5
“Más generalmente, Bjørnskov (2006) señala que la confianza generalizada es mayor en los países protestantes y menor en países con mayor desigualdad de ingresos y mayor diversidad étnica.”
BackgroundTrust, Efficient Contracting and Export Upgrading
Ndubuisi, G. O., & Owusu, S. (2021) · European Journal of Development Research · doi:10.1057/s41287-021-00486-x · Cited by 6
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Jermaine, S. (2023) · Journal of Trust Research · doi:10.1080/21515581.2023.2203931 · Cited by 5
“independent, mediating, or dependent) and as such is captured ‘at a single point in time’ (Bjørnskov, 2007; Chan et al., 2011; Chan, 2007) as opposed to being viewed as a process or mechanism with a time dimension or ‘agentic’ view (Khodyakov, 2007; Lewicki et al.”
BackgroundAbraham, M., Nisic, N., Trübner, M., Walch, H., & Wunder, A. (2023) · Rationality and Society · doi:10.1177/10434631231213721 · Cited by 5
“We argue that this is the same as generalized trust, that is, the household members ’ tendency to trust strangers, which results from shared normative values in a population (Bjørnskov, 2007).”
BackgroundTake Five? Testing the Cultural and Experiential Theories of Generalised Trust Against Five Criteria
Kumove, M. (2024) · Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00323217231224971 · Cited by 5
“There have also been numerous cross-sectional studies, which have linked high country-level trust to Protestant religious traditions and more equal income distributions (Delhey and Newton, 2003; Bjørnskov, 2007).”
Olarewaju, T. I. A., Tamvada, J. P., McDowall-Emefiele, S., & Swaray, R. (2024) · Review of Managerial Science · doi:10.1007/s11846-024-00802-9 · Cited by 6
“In the same vein, Bjørnskov (2007), who uses social confidence as a measure of institutional quality, posited that countries with a high level of social trust and confidence are more likely to address corruption problems effectively.”
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“Esta idea indicaría que un mayor nivel de confianza estaría capturando diferencias en la aversión relativa al riesgo, la cual tendería a disminuir a medida que el ingreso aumenta (Bjørnskov, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialWhen Social Constraints Increase Trust
Robbins, B. G. (2016) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023116667360 · Cited by 5
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“Given that generalized trust has been found to decrease as social distance increases [50,60,61], this result may point to an absence of a relationship between generalized trust and privacy concerns.”
BackgroundThe Italian North–South Divide in Perceived Dishonesty: A Matter of Trust?
Attanasi, G., Bucciol, A., Cicognani, S., & Montinari, N. (2024) · Italian Economic Journal · doi:10.1007/s40797-023-00258-y · Cited by 5
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“1 PSYCHOLOGIA Advance Publication by J-STAGE doi: 10.2117/psysoc.2019-B011 the social level (Bjørnskov, 2007; Putnam, 1993) as a macro system; thus, trust is an important source of subjective well-being (Bjørnskov, 2008; Helliwell, 2003; Helliwell & Putnam, 2004; Helliwell & Wang, 2011; Portela,…”
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Norms regulating emotional expressions relate to national level generalized trust.
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“Bjørnskov found in a multinational study that family socioeconomic status affects educational levels through education, especially in high-income countries 21 .”
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“Institutional-trust fluctuates after governance failures or financial crises (Bjørnskov 2007; Roth et al. 2011 ; van der Meer & Hakhverdian 2017), with generalised (interpersonal) trust considered a slower moving social capital that changes mainly through generational turnover (Bjørnskov 2007;…”
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Staubli, S. (2016) · Soziale Probleme · doi:10.1007/s41059-016-0018-z · Cited by 4
“…welche nicht nur im European Social Survey, sondern auch im World Value Survey und weiteren Studien zu Standardindikatoren für die Messung von sozialem Vertrauen wurden, wurde in der Vergangenheit von mehreren Autoren kritisiert (Hardin 2002; Uslaner 2002; Bjørnskov 2007; Delhey et al. 2011).”
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Klein, M., Wiens, M., & Schultmann, F. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2022.101898 · Cited by 4
Trust and the quality of formal institutions
Bentkowska, K. (2023) · Ekonomia i Prawo · doi:10.12775/eip.2023.002 · Cited by 4
Nordic Research on Political Behaviour
von Schoultz, Å. (2015) · Scandinavian Political Studies · doi:10.1111/1467-9477.12053 · Cited by 4
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Rochelle, T. L., & Chan, O. F. (2014) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2014.966049 · Cited by 4
“Previous studies have noted the negative impact of ethnic diversity on levels of trust (Banting et al., 2006; Bjørnskov, 2006).”
BackgroundLife course perspectives on economic stress and generalized trust in other people
Lindström, M., & Rosvall, M. (2015) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2015.11.006 · Cited by 4
“…wallets in different cities in different parts of the orld and observing the inclination to return the wallet ith the content intact, was performed (Björnskov, 2006). n the Scania 2008 questionnaire, the generalized trust in ther people has four alternative answers, but the item is esigned to be…”
A tale of two fears: negotiating trust and neighborly relations in urbanizing Turkey
Jermaine, S., & Hoard, P. (2020) · Journal of Contemporary European Studies · doi:10.1080/14782804.2020.1730161 · Cited by 4
Sendroiu, I., & Upenieks, L. (2020) · British Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12760 · Cited by 4
Auditing, Trust, and the Social Contract
Rothstein, B. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192894908.003.0007 · Cited by 4
Do Long-Term Natural Disasters Influence Social Trust? Empirical Evidence from China
Li, Y., Li, H., & Ruan, J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147280 · Cited by 4
“Following Bjørnskov [7], Nannestad [37] and Uslaner [38], we use similar questions from large-scale survey to measure social trust.”
BackgroundMethodLa dualidad social en los estudios de opinión en Panamá (octubre de 2019-febrero de 2021)
Subinas, J. (2021) · Política Revista de Ciencia Política · doi:10.5354/0719-5338.2021.61804 · Cited by 4
Organization development and cultural values of trust in international contexts
Thanetsunthorn, N. (2021) · Review of International Business and Strategy · doi:10.1108/ribs-04-2021-0054 · Cited by 4
National Attachment—Cohesive, Divisive, or Both?
Gustavsson, G. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198842545.003.0004 · Cited by 6
OECD (2017) · OECD eBooks · doi:10.1787/9789264278219-7-en · Cited by 4
Household Wealth is Associated With Perceived Trustworthiness in a Diverse Set of Countries
Boon-Falleur, M., André, J., Baumard, N., & Nettle, D. (2024) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506241289461 · Cited by 6
“…interpersonal trust has emphasized the role of community diversity, encompassing factors like inequality and ethnic fractionalization, in the establishment of trust (Alesina & La Ferrara, 2000; Algan & Cahuc, 2013; Bjørnskov, 2007; Helliwell & Wang, 2010; Putnam, 2000; Rothstein & Uslaner, 2005).”
Jóléti rezsimek és a bizalom kapcsolata
Vit, E. (2018) · Socio hu · doi:10.18030/socio.hu.2018.2.45 · Cited by 4
On inequality, growth and trust: some evidence from the lab
D’Amato, M., O’Higgins, N., & Stimolo, M. (2021) · Journal of Institutional Economics · doi:10.1017/s1744137421000552 · Cited by 4
Well-being and economic development: a principal components analysis
Wong, K. M. (2013) · International Journal of Happiness and Development · doi:10.1504/ijhd.2013.055637 · Cited by 4
“There is a large body of literature on the determinants of happiness, based on individual- or country-level data including Blanchflower and Oswald (2008), Winkelmann and Winkelmann (1998), Andersson (2008), Welsch (2008), Bjornskov et al.”
BackgroundGeneralized trust and diversity in the classroom: A longitudinal study of Romanian adolescents
Bădescu, G., & Sum, P. E. (2015) · Communist and Post-Communist Studies · doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.01.004 · Cited by 4
Impact of the “Holy Crash” on Trust in the Church in Slovenia
Smrke, M. (2013) · East European Politics and Societies and Cultures · doi:10.1177/0888325413475478 · Cited by 4
Financial Deepening and Social Capital.Preprint
Marchionne, F., & Niccoli, A. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1915198 · Cited by 4
On the Determinants of Social Trust in the United StatesPreprint
Bjørnskov, C. (2008) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1266370 · Cited by 4
Which Type of Trust Matters?: Interpersonal vs. Institutional vs. Political TrustPreprint
Hwang, I. D. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2656247 · Cited by 4
“But the insignificant schooling channel of institutional trust contrasts with the study on interpersonal trust such as Bjørnskov (2009, 2012), and Dearmon and Grier (2011), which report interpersonal trust affects growth through schooling or human capital channel.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSubnational Diversity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from a New DatasetPreprint
Gershman, B., & Rivera, D. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2851565 · Cited by 6
Sohlberg, J., & Esaiasson, P. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13015 · Cited by 3
Sidelemine, M., & Campion, E. D. (2025) · International Migration · doi:10.1111/imig.70064 · Cited by 3
“Growing literature continues to stress that trust varies in its significance across cultures (Banfield 1959; Bjørnskov 2006; Horváth 2013; Putnam 1993; Zak and Knack 2001).”
Social Trust and the Disclosure of Letters to Shareholders
Li, A., Wang, J., & Yang, Y. (2025) · Australian Accounting Review · doi:10.1111/auar.70009 · Cited by 3
He, X., Qin, J., & Ran, X. (2026) · Discover Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s43621-025-02426-9 · Cited by 3
“Generalized trust, referring to an individual’s trust in others or society, can significantly shape social behaviors and engagement in public affairs [4, 58].”
Johnsen, Å. (2026) · International Journal of Public Leadership · doi:10.1108/ijpl-04-2025-0065 · Cited by 14
Brandt, N. D., Savage, C., Roberts, B. W., Baumert, J., & Wagner, J. (2022) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104288 · Cited by 5
“In general, people trust others although interpersonal trust levels have been found to vary across countries (Bjørnskov, 2006).”
BackgroundInformation and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure and social trust: global evidence
Chung, K. H., & Kim, D. (2023) · International Review of Public Administration · doi:10.1080/12294659.2023.2179719 · Cited by 3
“Bjørnskov (2007) mentions that countries with larger population are often more diverse in terms of culture and ethnicity.”
BackgroundTrust and Inequality of Opportunities
Castillo, A. M. J., & Herreros, F. (2024) · Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00323217241282846 · Cited by 3
“Most studies agree that equality breeds trust (Bjornskov, 2006; Delhey and Newton, 2005; Putnam, 2015; Rothstein and Uslaner, 2005), while high levels of distrust are characteristic of unequal societies.”
Meltdown of trust in weakly governed economies
Polasky, S., Scheffer, M., & Anderies, J. M. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2320528122 · Cited by 3
Online-Vignettenexperimente. Methode und Anwendung auf spieltheoretische Analysen
Berger, R. D., Burek, M., & Saller, C. (2009) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-91791-7_19 · Cited by 3
Putting a Face to Institutions: Professionals and Generalized Trust
Alecu, A. I. (2019) · Professions and Professionalism · doi:10.7577/pp.3100 · Cited by 3
“At the aggregate level, cultural factors such as Protestantism and low-income inequality are associated with high generalized trust (Bjørnskov, 2007; Uslaner, 2002) and explain the comparatively high levels of trust found in Norway.”
BackgroundMicro‐credit NGOs and strategic trust: An odd couple?
Huda, K. A. S. M. N. (2021) · Business Ethics the Environment & Responsibility · doi:10.1111/beer.12350 · Cited by 3
“A homogenous society is also conducive to trust (Bjørnskov, 2006).”
BackgroundIllustrative examples of trust measures
OECD (2017) · OECD eBooks · doi:10.1787/9789264278219-9-en · Cited by 3
A Family Member or a Professional Manager? The Role of Trust in the Choice of CEO in Family Firms
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“Education and religion influence participation in community (e.g. Alesina and Ferrara, 2000; Bjørnskov, 2007).”
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Berdiev, A. N., & Saunoris, J. W. (2019) · Applied Economics Letters · doi:10.1080/13504851.2019.1613497 · Cited by 3
“Research has shown that generalized trust, which is trusting ‘people on whom the trusting part has no direct information’ (Bjørnskov 2007, 2) affects formal economic activity (see, e.g., Zak and Knack 2001) but why should trust impact informal production?”
BackgroundMethodANALYSIS OF PUBLIC ENTERPRISES IN THE REPUBLIC OF SRPSKA AND ASSESSMENT OF THEIR FINANCIAL RISK
Poljašević, J., & Grujić, M. (2021) · Зборник радова Економског факултета у Источном Сарајеву · doi:10.7251/zrefis2021037p · Cited by 3
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Metadata
- Authors
- Bjørnskov, C.
- Affiliations
- Aarhus University (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Bjørnskov, Christian
- ORCID
- Bjørnskov, Christian
- Venue
- Public Choice
- Published
- 2006-09-15
- Volume
- 130
- Issue
- 1-2
- Pages
- 1-21
- ISSN
- 0048-5829 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-7101
- OpenAlex
- W2100726744
- Cited by
- 969
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 82 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 61 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 57 · 2014: 56 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 42
- FWCI
- 44.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Public Choice (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Capital and Networks
- Social Sciences › Development › Culture, Economy, and Development Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Corruption and Economic Development
- Keywords
- generalized trust, determinants of trust, social polarization, income inequality, ethnic diversity, Protestantism, monarchy, post-communist societies, cross-national comparison, trust measurement, endogeneity
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