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The Behavior Change Technique Taxonomy (v1) of 93 Hierarchically Clustered Techniques: Building an International Consensus for the Reporting of Behavior Change Interventions
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: CONSORT guidelines call for precise reporting of behavior change interventions: we need rigorous methods of characterizing active content of interventions with precision and specificity. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study is to develop an extensive, consensually agreed hierarchically structured taxonomy of techniques [behavior change techniques (BCTs)] used in behavior change interventions. METHODS: In a Delphi-type exercise, 14 experts rated labels and definitions of 124 BCTs from six published classification systems. Another 18 experts grouped BCTs according to similarity of active ingredients in an open-sort task. Inter-rater agreement amongst six researchers coding 85 intervention descriptions by BCTs was assessed. RESULTS: This resulted in 93 BCTs clustered into 16 groups. Of the 26 BCTs occurring at least five times, 23 had adjusted kappas of 0.60 or above. CONCLUSIONS: "BCT taxonomy v1," an extensive taxonomy of 93 consensually agreed, distinct BCTs, offers a step change as a method for specifying interventions, but we anticipate further development and evaluation based on international, interdisciplinary consensus.
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“The motivating behavior change process comprised of the “vicarious consequences” and “emotional social support” BCTs as the BCCTv1 dictates that cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and motivational interviewing (MI) frameworks should be coded as emotional social support (Michie et al., 2013).”
From Improving Mental Health Service Utilization Among Men: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Behavior Change Techniques Within Interventions Targeting Help-Seeking (2019) · cites this paper as Michie et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“For instance, the BCTTv1 states that “emotional social support” extends to MI and CBT (Michie et al., 2013).”
From Improving Mental Health Service Utilization Among Men: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Behavior Change Techniques Within Interventions Targeting Help-Seeking (2019) · cites this paper as Michie et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“A strength of this review included the use of a validated taxonomy used in other areas with reasonable interrater reliability (Michie et al., 2013).”
From Improving Mental Health Service Utilization Among Men: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Behavior Change Techniques Within Interventions Targeting Help-Seeking (2019) · cites this paper as Michie et al., 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Psychological interventions were generally multi-component and complex, containing an average of 9.6 BCTs; the most frequently used BCTs were 'problem solving' and 'instruction on how to perform the behaviour' (Michie 2013).”
From Psychological interventions for improving adherence to inhaled therapies in people with cystic fibrosis (2023) · cites this paper as Michie 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“As such, SD contacted the authors of included trials about the content of their interventions if there was insufficient information available (Michie 2013).”
From Psychological interventions for improving adherence to inhaled therapies in people with cystic fibrosis (2023) · cites this paper as Michie 2013
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“Psychological interventions for improving adherence to inhaled therapies in people with CF may incorporate one or more BCTs (e.g.'problem-solving', defined as”
From Psychological interventions for improving adherence to inhaled therapies in people with cystic fibrosis (2023) · cites this paper as Michie 2013
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Several resources can inform the use of implementation strategies, including established taxonomies of implementation strategies (6, 7, 24, 25) and behavior change techniques (27, 28), repositories of systematic reviews (38, 103, 104), methods for selecting and tailoring implementation strategies (40, 55, 56), and reporting guidelines that promote replicability (4, 98–100).”
From Enhancing the Impact of Implementation Strategies in Healthcare: A Research Agenda (2019) · cites this paper as [27]
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In the citing paper
“Additionally, we applied the Behaviour Change Technique Taxonomy (BCTT) to identify effective combinations of intervention components for promoting healthy eating behaviours among adolescents [28].”
From School-based healthy eating interventions for adolescents aged 10–19 years: an umbrella review (2024) · cites this paper as [28]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Of the 93 BCTs in Michie's taxonomy, 21 only 23 were used in the selected trials, illustrating that most BCTs in the taxonomy are not currently used in m-health apps for diabetes management.”
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“BCTs refer to the observable and replicable components within an intervention designed to change behavior”
From Improving Mental Health Service Utilization Among Men: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Behavior Change Techniques Within Interventions Targeting Help-Seeking (2019) · cites this paper as Michie et al., 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Michie et al. (2013) devised a taxonomy (BCCTv1) containing 93 BCTs”
From Improving Mental Health Service Utilization Among Men: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Behavior Change Techniques Within Interventions Targeting Help-Seeking (2019) · cites this paper as Michie et al., 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Although the full BCCTv1 contains 93 BCTs (Michie et al., 2013), the current review only identified 18 different BCTs.”
From Improving Mental Health Service Utilization Among Men: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of Behavior Change Techniques Within Interventions Targeting Help-Seeking (2019) · cites this paper as Michie et al., 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The BCTs are helpful in providing a common language to describe processes within the programme that aim to change the behaviour of the participants [54].”
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Active ingredients or strategies facilitating behavior change were operationalized using the Behavior Change Technique Taxonomy version 1 (BCT Taxonomy v1) hierarchical clusters [20] (see the Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results section for details of each).”
From Features of Structured, One-to-One Videoconference Interventions That Actively Engage People in the Management of Their Chronic Conditions: Scoping Review (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We coded the extracted intervention descriptions into component BCTs using the BCTTv1, an established taxonomy of 93 BCTs, as a coding framework (Michie 2013).”
From Psychological interventions for improving adherence to inhaled therapies in people with cystic fibrosis (2023) · cites this paper as Michie 2013
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Two independent coders will identify and record which BCTs from the BCT Taxonomy v1 are present in each intervention component.48”
In the citing paper
“Active ingredients can be categorized broadly, as is done in the interventions and policy levels of the Behavior Change Wheel [21], or characterized at the level of specific strategies or techniques [24].”
From Towards a common terminology: a simplified framework of interventions to promote and integrate evidence into health practices, systems, and policies (2014) · cites this paper as [24]
In the citing paper
“This is an extensive, integrated, hierarchical classification system for reliably specifying intervention components in terms of 93 BCTs, organised into 16 groupings [15, 16, 22–24].”
In the citing paper
“Study 1 presented the synthesis of existing BCT taxonomies into a single comprehensive, cross-context, overarching BCT taxonomy: BCTTv1.8,17,40”
In the citing paper
“Evidence is already emerging to suggest that some BCTs from BCTTv1 occur more frequently than others in descriptions of BCIs.40”
In the citing paper
“Results from two initial phases of reliability testing indicated BCTTv1 to be reliable in specifying 26 frequently occurring BCTs when used by the taxonomy developers.40”
In the citing paper
“The extensive discussions involved in taxonomy development described by Michie et al. 40 might result in enhanced agreement owing to tacit knowledge beyond the explicit BCT labels and definitions.”
In the citing paper
“Of the 26 BCTTv1 BCTs meeting this criterion, nine were found to have 'outstanding' and 14 'substantial' reliabilities.”
In the citing paper
“Most researchers would probably accept that BCTs definitions generating kappa scores of 0.70 can be reliably identified but may have reservations about those with lower scores.108”
In the citing paper
“Byrt et al. 99 proposed the 'PABAK', which results in considerably more meaningful indices for data such as BCT coding when the prevalence of each BCT is low and bias may occur; therefore, it was the statistic chosen by Michie et al. 40 as the most appropriate to measure intercoder reliability in applying BCTTv1.”
In the citing paper
“There is empirical evidence to suggest that successful outcomes of public health interventions depend not only on the existence of the specific intervention components needed to achieve behaviour change [11] but also on the extent to which they are implemented in the real world setting [12].”
From Barriers, facilitators and capacities for childhood obesity prevention in 12 European nations: results of a policy-maker survey (2018) · cites this paper as [11]
In the citing paper
“This assumption is problematic because of the current limited interpretational challenges user interaction data present, such as the difficulty in distinguishing online versus offline interactions and the implications for intervention exposure, or the absence of frameworks that identify unique meaningful interaction sequences with digital features that translate to specific behavior change”
From Understanding Health Behavior Technology Engagement: Pathway to Measuring Digital Behavior Change Interventions (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“Behavior change techniques are the smallest component parts of widely used theories of health behavior, sourced from various fields and through consensus of experts [10].”
From Understanding Health Behavior Technology Engagement: Pathway to Measuring Digital Behavior Change Interventions (2019) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“Moreover, published descriptions of what the intervention consists of are often, and unfortunately, remarkably poor.38 39”
From Demystifying theory and its use in improvement (2015) · cites this paper as [38]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Michie, S., Richardson, M., Johnston, M., Abraham, C., Francis, J., Hardeman, W., Eccles, M. P., Cane, J., & Wood, C. E.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- University of Exeter (GB)
- University of Aberdeen (GB)
- City, University of London (GB)
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- Newcastle University (GB)
- University of Kent (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Michie, Susan
- ORCID
- Venue
- Annals of Behavioral Medicine
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2013-03-20
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 81-95
- ISSN
- 0742-5554 (ISSN-L)
- 0883-6612
- 1532-4796
- OpenAlex
- W2169434152
- Cited by
- 7,629
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 644 · 2025: 771 · 2024: 824 · 2023: 846 · 2022: 906 · 2021: 834 · 2020: 757 · 2019: 550 · 2018: 489 · 2017: 325 · 2016: 280 · 2015: 229 · 2014: 130 · 2013: 34
- FWCI
- 342.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annals of Behavioral Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- City Research Online (City University London) (acceptedVersion)
- Aberdeen University Research Archive (Aberdeen University) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia) (submittedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health Policy Implementation Science
- Keywords
- behaviour change techniques, BCT taxonomy, behaviour change interventions, intervention reporting, interobserver agreement, consensus development, hierarchical clustering
- MeSH terms
- Behavior Therapy, Consensus Statements as Topic, Humans, Cluster Analysis, Treatment Outcome
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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