Inflammaging and Cardiovascular Risk in Old Women
Open accessAbstract
Inflammaging is a chronic, low-grade inflammation that accompanies aging and contributes to the development of age-related diseases. Recent research has increasingly focused on its impact in women, recognizing that aging and inflammatory processes differ between sexes. Estrogens, known for their anti-inflammatory effects, offer protection during reproductive years. However, their decline during menopause and the climacteric period is linked to increased inflammation and a higher risk of chronic diseases such as osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, and arthritis. X-linked immune-related genes play a critical role in immune system regulation. Epigenetic changes associated with aging can affect the expression of inflammation-related genes, with hormonal and genetic differences contributing to sex-specific responses. Women generally exhibit stronger immune responses than men, which can enhance infection resistance but also increase susceptibility to autoimmune diseases and inflammaging. Lifestyle factors, including diet and physical activity, significantly influence inflammation. Due to metabolic differences, women may respond differently to these interventions. Postmenopausal women, for example, often exhibit higher levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein (CRP) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), which are associated with elevated risks of cardiovascular and other age-related conditions. These findings suggest that strategies to reduce inflammation-such as anti-inflammatory diets or medications-should be tailored to the unique hormonal and physiological context of women. Understanding the distinct manifestations of inflammaging in women is essential for developing gender-specific approaches to promote healthier aging and reduce the burden of chronic disease in later life.
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Chronic low-grade inflammation, characterized by elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines, disrupts muscle protein synthesis and promotes fat deposition.
“Additionally, chronic low-grade inflammation, characterized by elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, disrupts muscle protein synthesis and promotes fat deposition [9].”
From A Narrative Review on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists for Obesity in Older Women: Maximizing Weight Loss While Preserving Lean Mass (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
The Introduction’s “Inflammaging” section describes chronic low-grade inflammation with elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines. The “Physical Activity” section links increased inflammation to sarcopenia and reports an association between inflammatory imbalance and higher body fat in older women. It does not say that inflammation disrupts muscle protein synthesis or causes fat deposition; page numbers are not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHormonal changes associated with aging, such as decreased estrogen and growth factors, reduce muscle regeneration and promote fat storage.
“Moreover, hormonal changes associated with aging, such as decreased levels of estrogen and growth factors, exacerbate these processes by reducing muscle regeneration and promoting fat storage [9].”
From A Narrative Review on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists for Obesity in Older Women: Maximizing Weight Loss While Preserving Lean Mass (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
The Introduction’s Physical Activity section (page not provided) links declining estradiol in menopausal women to sarcopenia and poorer muscle quality and function. It does not say that aging lowers growth factors, that these hormonal changes reduce muscle regeneration, or that they promote fat storage; its mention of higher body fat concerns a separate observation. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLoss of muscle mass in older women is exacerbated by anabolic resistance and low-grade chronic inflammation (inflammaging).
“The loss of muscle mass in this population is further exacerbated by anabolic resistance and low-grade chronic inflammation, often referred to as “inflammaging” [9].”
From A Narrative Review on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists for Obesity in Older Women: Maximizing Weight Loss While Preserving Lean Mass (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
The Introduction’s Physical Activity section says that increased inflammation contributes to sarcopenia and poorer muscle quality and function in menopausal women. It mentions reduced protein intake, but does not identify anabolic resistance as a contributor; reduced intake is not the same as anabolic resistance. The Introduction’s Inflammaging section defines inflammaging as chronic, low-grade inflammation. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdiposity amplifies the pathophysiological mechanisms of inflammaging that sustain lean mass loss.
“The effect of adiposity amplifies all the pathophysiological mechanism of the inflammaging sustaining the lean mass loss [9,19].”
From A Narrative Review on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists for Obesity in Older Women: Maximizing Weight Loss While Preserving Lean Mass (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
The Introduction’s Physical Activity section reports impaired inflammatory regulation in overweight and obese older women and says increased inflammation is involved in sarcopenia in menopausal women. It does not establish that adiposity amplifies all inflammaging mechanisms or that this amplification sustains lean-mass loss. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAnabolic resistance and inflammaging impair the muscle's ability to respond to anabolic stimuli, contributing to progressive deterioration of muscle tissue.
“These factors impair the muscle’s ability to respond effectively to anabolic stimuli, thus contributing to the progressive deterioration of muscle tissue.”
From A Narrative Review on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists for Obesity in Older Women: Maximizing Weight Loss While Preserving Lean Mass (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
The Introduction’s Physical Activity section (page not provided) says increased inflammation is involved in sarcopenia in menopausal women and that sarcopenia negatively affects muscle quality and function. It does not say that anabolic resistance or inflammaging impairs muscle responsiveness to anabolic stimuli, so the proposed mechanism is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Cited by
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Moscucci, F., Baratta, F., Pastori, D., Menichelli, D., Mattioli, A. V., Gallina, S., Lospinuso, I., Sciomer, S., Piccirillo, G., & Desideri, G. (2026) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu18040632 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Additionally, chronic low-grade inflammation, characterized by elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, disrupts muscle protein synthesis and promotes fat deposition [9].”
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- Authors
- Moscucci, F., Baratta, F., Bucciarelli, V., Mattioli, A. V., Pinti, M., Zanini, G., Sciomer, S., Gallina, S., Piccirillo, G., & Desideri, G.
- Affiliations
- University of L'Aquila (IT)
- Policlinico Umberto I (IT)
- Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria delle Marche (IT)
- University of Bologna (IT)
- University of Modena and Reggio Emilia (IT)
- Sapienza University of Rome (IT)
- University of Chieti-Pescara (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Moscucci, Federica
- Bucciarelli, Valentina
- ORCID
- Venue
- High Blood Pressure & Cardiovascular Prevention
- Published
- 2025-12-09
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 171-181
- ISSN
- 1120-9879 (ISSN-L)
- 1179-1985
- PMC
- PMC12989026
- OpenAlex
- W4417231089
- Cited by
- 8
- References
- 104
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8
- FWCI
- 1.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- High Blood Pressure & Cardiovascular Prevention (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Università degli Studi dell’Aquila
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Menopause: Health Impacts and Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Oncology › Inflammatory Biomarkers in Disease Prognosis
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Aging › Genetics, Aging, and Longevity in Model Organisms
- Keywords
- inflammaging, cardiovascular risk, postmenopausal women, sex differences in aging, estrogen, menopause, low-grade inflammation, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, epigenetic aging, anti-inflammatory diet, physical activity, healthy aging, autoimmune disease
- MeSH terms
- Heart Disease Risk Factors, Age Factors, Aged, Aging, Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Cardiovascular Diseases, Female, Humans, Inflammation, Sex Factors, Women's Health, Risk Assessment, Inflammation Mediators
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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