Poisonings from flesh of the Greenland shark Somniosus microcephalus may be due to trimethylamine
Abstract
The flesh of the Greenland shark, Somniosus microcephalus, especially in fresh condition, is toxic to both dog and man. Analysis of the toxic fractions indicates the presence of large amounts of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) but no other substances that could be directly responsible for the poisoning. The symptoms appear to be due to an acute trimethylamine (TMA) poisoning arising from intestinal reduction of TMAO to TMA. TMA stimulates contraction of the guinea-pig ileum (antagonized by atropine but not hexamethonium). Low concentrations of TMA increase contraction of the rat phrenic nerve-diaphragm preparation, whereas higher concentrations cause blockade.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
TMA is oxygenated within living animals to form TMAO by flavin monooxygenases (FMO1 and FMO3).
“TMA is a gas which is oxygenated within living animals to form TMAO by flavin monooxygenases (FMO1 and FMO3) [11,12].”
From Trimethylamine N-oxide: the good, the bad and the unknown. (2016) · cites this paper as [11]
Cites
Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics.
(1986) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-104-3-453_1 · Cited by 1,015 · see citing works
Poisonous and venomous marine animals of the world
(1988) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.26-0928 · Cited by 535 · see citing works
Ej, C. (1936) · The Journal of Biochemistry · Cited by 430 · see citing works
Poisonous and Venomous Marine Animals of the World
Sodeman, W. A. (1989) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1989.41.2.tm0410020251b · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Formation of methylamines from ingested choline and lecithin.
Zeisel, S. H., Wishnok, J. S., & Blusztajn, J. K. (1983) · The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/s0022-3565(25)33590-1 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
An absorption apparatus for the micro-determination of certain volatile substances
Conway, E. J. (1935) · Biochemical Journal · doi:10.1042/bj0292221 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
The Biosynthesis of Trimethylamine-N-Oxide
Baker, J. R., & Chaykin, S. (1962) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1016/s0021-9258(18)60325-4 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
The metabolism of<sup>14</sup>C-labelled trimethylamine and its<i>N</i>-oxide in man
Al-waiz, M., Mitchell, S. C., Idle, J. R., & Smith, R. L. (1987) · Xenobiotica · doi:10.3109/00498258709043962 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
de la Huerga, J., & Popper, H. (1951) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci102463 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
A comparative study of trimethylamine-N-oxide biosynthesis
Maker, J. R., Struempler, A. W., & Chaykin, S. (1963) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta · doi:10.1016/0006-3002(63)90985-5 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Acetylcholinesterase: Trimethylammonium-Ion Inhibition of Deacetylation
Krupka, R. M. (1964) · Biochemistry · doi:10.1021/bi00899a029 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Trimethylamine N-oxide synthesis: A human variant
Higgins, T. J., Chaykin, S., Hammond, K. B., & Humbert, J. R. (1972) · Biochemical Medicine · doi:10.1016/0006-2944(72)90025-7 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Al-Waiz, M. M., Ayesh, R., Mitchell, S. C., Idle, J. R., & Smith, R. L. (1987) · Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1038/clpt.1987.207 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Trimethylaminuria (‘fish-odour syndrome’): A study of an affected family
Al-Waiz, M. M., Ayesh, R., Mitchell, S. C., Idle, J. R., & Smith, R. L. (1988) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs0740231 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOLINE ABSORPTION IN THE INTESTINAL TRACT 1
de la Huerga, J., & Pópper, H. (1952) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci102646 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The metabolism of choline by the germfree rat
Prentiss, P. G., Rosen, H., Brown, N. D., Horowitz, R. E., Malm, O. J., & Levenson, S. Μ. (1961) · Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics · doi:10.1016/0003-9861(61)90069-8 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The biosynthesis of trimethylamine-N-oxide
Baker, J., & Chaykin, S. (1960) · Biochimica et Biophysica Acta · doi:10.1016/0006-3002(60)90062-7 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Catabolic pathways for high-dosed L(-)- or D(+)-carnitine in germ-free rats?
SEIM, H., SCHULZE, J., & STRACK, E. (1985) · Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler · doi:10.1515/bchm3.1985.366.2.1017 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
TRIMETHYLAMINURIA AND INHERITED NOONAN'S SYNDROME
Calvert, G. D. (1973) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(73)91566-3 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Glycosidases in lymphomyeloid (hematopoietic) tissues of elasmobranch fish
Fänge, R., Lundblad, G., Slettengren, K., & Lind, J. L. (1980) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B Comparative Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/0305-0491(80)90410-1 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
WRANNE, L. (1955) · Acta Medica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.0954-6820.1955.tb18248.x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Studies of Swedish marine organisms. I. Screening of biological activity.
Andersson, L., Lidgren, G., Bohlin, L., Magni, L., Ögren, S. O., & Afzelius, L. (1983) · PubMed · Cited by 20 · see citing works
1-O-(2-Hydroxyalkyl)glycerols Isolated from Greenland Shark Liver Oil.
Hallgren, B., Ställberg, G., Harmoinen, A. P. T., Rosenblom, J., Taticchi, A., & Mannervik, B. (1974) · Acta chemica Scandinavica/Acta chemica Scandinavica. B, Organic chemistry and biochemistry/Acta chemica Scandinavica. A, Physical and inorganic chemistry/Acta chemica Scandinavica. Series B. Organic chemistry and biochemistry/Acta chemica Scandinavica. Series A, Physical and inorganic chemistry · doi:10.3891/acta.chem.scand.28b-1074 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Die Bildung von γ-Butyrobetain aus exogenem L(—)-Carnitin in vivo bei Maus und Ratte
Strack, E., & Seim, H. (1979) · Hoppe-Seyler´s Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie · doi:10.1515/bchm2.1979.360.1.207 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Fate of Trimethylamine Oxide and Trimethylamine in Man
Tarr, H. L. A. (1941) · Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada · doi:10.1139/f40-022 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
MIQUEL, O. (1946) · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/s0022-3565(25)05878-1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Tokunaga, T. (1980) · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Dechezleprêtre, S., Portet, R., & Cheymol, J. (2008) · Medicina et Pharmacologia Experimentalis · doi:10.1159/000137036 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Biochemical Studies of Putrefaction Amines. IX
Iwamoto, T. (1957) · YAKUGAKU ZASSHI · doi:10.1248/yakushi1947.77.11_1189 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Brewster, M. A., & Schedewie, H. (1983) · PubMed · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Mode of Lymphagogic Action of Trimethylamine
TAKAOKA, T. (1957) · Okayama Igakkai Zasshi (Journal of Okayama Medical Association) · doi:10.4044/joma1947.69.1_17 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Biochemical Studies of Putrefaction Amines. VIII
Iwamoto, T. (1957) · YAKUGAKU ZASSHI · doi:10.1248/yakushi1947.77.11_1186 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 34 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Trimethylamine N-oxide: the good, the bad and the unknown.
Velasquez, M., Ramezani, A., Manal, A., & Raj, D. (2016) · Toxins · doi:10.3390/toxins8110326 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Naturally Occurring Food Toxins
Dolan, L. C., Matulka, R. A., & Burdock, G. A. (2010) · Toxins · doi:10.3390/toxins2092289 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Trimethylamine oxide accumulation in marine animals: relationship to acylglycerol storagej
Seibel, B. A., & Walsh, P. J. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.205.3.297 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Shark predation and tooth wear in a population of northeastern Pacific killer whales
Ford, J., Ellis, G., Matkin, C. O., Wetklo, M., Barrett-Lennard, L. G., & Withler, R. E. (2010) · Aquatic Biology · doi:10.3354/ab00307 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Biology of the Greenland shark Somniosus microcephalus
MacNeil, M. A., McMeans, B. C., Hussey, N. E., Vecsei, P., Svavarsson, J., Kovacs, K. M., Lydersen, C., Treble, M. A., Skomal, G. B., Ramsey, M. W., et al. (2012) · Journal of Fish Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03257.x · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Fermented and ripened fish products in the northern European countries
Skåra, T., Axelsson, L. T., Stefánsson, G., Ekstrand, B., & Hagen, H. (2015) · Journal of Ethnic Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jef.2015.02.004 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Quaternary ammonium compounds in the biosphere—An example of a versatile adaptive strategy
Anthoni, U., Christophersen, C., Hougaard, L., & Nielsen, P. H. (1991) · Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B Comparative Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/0305-0491(91)90002-u · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Unveiling hákarl: A study of the microbiota of the traditional Icelandic fermented fish
Osimani, A., Ferrocino, I., Agnolucci, M., Cocolin, L., Giovannetti, M., Cristani, C., Palla, M., Milanović, V., Roncolini, A., Sabbatini, R., et al. (2019) · Food Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.fm.2019.03.027 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Laxson, C. J., Condon, N. E., Drazen, J. C., & Yancey, P. H. (2011) · Physiological and Biochemical Zoology · doi:10.1086/661774 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Nitrogen compounds as osmolytes
Yancey, P. H. (2001) · Fish physiology · doi:10.1016/s1546-5098(01)20010-7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Boisier, P., Ranaivoson, G., Rasolofonirina, N., Andriamahefazafy, B., Roux, J., Chanteau, S., Satake, M., & Yasumoto, T. (1995) · Toxicon · doi:10.1016/0041-0101(95)00051-m · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Lu, S., Wang, C., Ma, J., & Wang, Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1456030 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Evolution of metabolomics profile of crab paste during fermentation
Chen, D., Ye, Y., Chen, J., & Yan, X. (2015) · Food Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.07.098 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Eisert, R., Oftedal, O., Lever, M., Ramdohr, S., Breier, B. H., & Barrell, G. K. (2005) · Marine Ecology Progress Series · doi:10.3354/meps300213 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
G protein-coupled receptor mediated trimethylamine sensing
Suska, A., Ibáñez, A. B., Lundström, I., & Berghard, A. (2009) · Biosensors and Bioelectronics · doi:10.1016/j.bios.2009.08.012 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Psychedelic Fauna for Psychonaut Hunters: A Mini-Review
Orsolini, L., Ciccarese, M., Papanti, D., Berardis, D. D., Guirguis, A., Corkery, J., & Schifano, F. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00153 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Organic Osmolytes in Elasmobranchs
Yancey, P. H. (2015) · Fish physiology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801286-4.00004-6 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The passage of trimethylamine across rat and human skin
Kenyon, S. H., Carmichael, P. L., Khalaque, S., Panchal, S., Waring, R. H., Harris, R., Smith, R. L., & Mitchell, S. C. (2004) · Food and Chemical Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.fct.2004.05.007 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
A green approach for preparing anion exchange membrane based on cardo polyetherketone powders
Hu, J., Zhang, C., Zhang, X., Chen, L., Jiang, L., Meng, Y., & Wang, X. (2014) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.08.076 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
First report of a sleeper shark (Somniosussp.) in the southern Colombian Caribbean
Arturo Acero, P., Polo‐Silva, C. J., León, J., & Puentes, V. (2018) · Journal of Applied Ichthyology · doi:10.1111/jai.13712 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Jensen, S., Ólason, S. P., Skírnisdóttir, S., Stefánsson, G., Dargentolle, C., & Marteinsson, V. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22127 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Enzymatically Produced Trimethylamine N-Oxide: Conserving It or Eliminating It
Catucci, G., Querio, G., Sadeghi, S. J., Gilardi, G., & Levi, R. C. (2019) · Catalysts · doi:10.3390/catal9121028 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Interplay between Cardiovascular Disease, Exercise, and the Gut Microbiome
Longoria, C. R., Guers, J. J., & Campbell, S. C. (2022) · Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.31083/j.rcm2311365 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A review of the Pacific sleeper shark Somniosus pacificus: biology and fishery interactions
Matta, M. E., Tribuzio, C. A., Davidson, L. N. K., Fuller, K. R., Dunne, G. C., & Andrews, A. H. (2024) · Polar Biology · doi:10.1007/s00300-024-03247-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zhang, L., Guo, L., Mu, C., Ye, Y., & Wang, C. (2021) · Journal of Ocean University of China · doi:10.1007/s11802-021-4558-x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Vanholder, R. C., & Glorieux, G. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-79135-9.00002-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Wright, B., Olsen, D., Gisborne, B., Schulze, A. D., Wetklo, M., Ellis, G., Matkin, C. O., Ford, J. K. B., & Doniol‐Valcroze, T. (2025) · Marine Ecology Progress Series · doi:10.3354/meps14876 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rise and metabolic roles of Vibrio during the fermentation of crab paste
Xiong, T.-H., Shi, C., Mu, C., Wang, C., & Ye, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1092573 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Nutrient Quality and Diversity in Foods for Optimal Nutrition
Swaby, A. M., & Agellon, L. B. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-100596-5.22895-3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Matteucci, M. J., Ly, B. T., & Clark, R. F. (2007) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-03228-5.50071-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lenky, C. C. (2012) · UC Research Repository (University of Canterbury) · doi:10.26021/6810
Metazoans Who Live Longer Than Jeanne Calment
Muradian, K. K., & Fraifeld, V. E. (2024) · Healthy ageing and longevity · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-64995-0_6
- Authors
- Anthoni, U., Christophersen, C., Gram, L., Nielsen, N. H., & Nielsen, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- Technical University of Denmark (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Christophersen, Carsten
- ORCID
- Gram, Lone
- Venue
- Toxicon
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1991-01
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1205-1212
- ISSN
- 0041-0101 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1984502489
- Cited by
- 32
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 1 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 2 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 1 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 0.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Toxicon (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (submittedVersion)
- Technical University of Denmark, DTU Orbit (Technical University of Denmark, DTU) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Marine Toxins and Detection Methods
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Polyamine Metabolism and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Ichthyology and Marine Biology
- Keywords
- Greenland shark, Somniosus microcephalus, trimethylamine, trimethylamine N-oxide, ileal smooth muscle contraction, neuromuscular blockade, phrenic nerve-diaphragm, atropine antagonism, hexamethonium, food poisoning
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cooking, Diaphragm, Freezing, Guinea Pigs, Ileum, Meat, Methylamines, Muscle Contraction, Muscle, Smooth, Neuromuscular Depolarizing Agents, Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, Sharks, Rats, In Vitro Techniques
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
