Formation of methylamines from ingested choline and lecithin.
Abstract
Humans ingest substantial amounts of choline and lecithin as part of common foods. Physicians have recently begun administering large doses of these compounds to individuals with neurological diseases. A significant fraction of ingested choline is destroyed by enzymes within gut bacteria, forming trimethylamine (TMA), dimethylamine (DMA) and monomethylamine (MMA). Some of these methylamines are eventually excreted into the urine, presumably after being absorbed and carried to the kidneys via the bloodstream. The methylamines formed after choline is eaten could be substrates for the formation of nitrosamines, which have marked carcinogenic activity. Twenty-seven millimoles of choline chloride, choline stearate or lecithin were administered to healthy human subjects. It was found that these treatments markedly increased the urinary excretion of TMA, DMA and MMA, with choline chloride having the greatest effect. Rats were treated with 2 mmol/kg b.wt. of choline chloride or lecithin, and it was found that these treatments significantly increased urinary TMA excretion and did not alter DMA or MMA excretion. Our choline chloride preparation contained no MMA, DMA or TMA; however, it was found that our choline stearate and all the commercially available lecithins tested were contaminated with methylamines. Prior removal of methylamines from our lecithin preparation minimized the effect of oral administration of this compound on methylamine excretion in urine of rats and humans.
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TMA can be present in commercially available fish oil or choline-containing supplements that have undergone bacterial degradation during preparation or storage.
“In addition, TMA can be present in commercially available fish oil or choline-containing diet supplements that have been subject to bacterial degradation during preparation or storage (131).”
From Trimethylamine <i>N</i> -Oxide, the Microbiome, and Heart and Kidney Disease (2017) · cites this paper as [131]
Gut microbial metabolism of choline results in the production of trimethylamine (TMA).
“Previous studies have established that gut microbial metabolism of choline results in the production of trimethylamine (TMA) (12–14).”
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- Authors
- Zeisel, S. H., Wishnok, J. S., & Blusztajn, J. K.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Venue
- The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1983-06
- Volume
- 225
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 320-324
- ISSN
- 0022-3565 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2149351827
- Cited by
- 253
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 0.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed
- Funders
- National Cancer Institute (P01CA026731)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Polyamine Metabolism and Applications
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Pharmacogenetics and Drug Metabolism
- Keywords
- choline, lecithin, trimethylamine, dimethylamine, methylamine, urinary excretion, nitrosamine formation, choline chloride, dietary choline
- MeSH terms
- Administration, Oral, Animals, Choline, Chromatography, Gas, Dimethylamines, Drug Contamination, Humans, Methylamines, Phosphatidylcholines, Rats, Inbred Strains, Rats
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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