Basic biomechanical measurements of bone: A tutorial

Stress waves in solids

Kolsky, H. (1964) · Journal of Sound and Vibration · doi:10.1016/0022-460x(64)90008-2 · Cited by 2,030 · see citing works

The compressive behavior of bone as a two-phase porous structure

Carter, D., & Hayes, W. (1977) · The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery · doi:10.2106/00004623-197759070-00021 · Cited by 2,001 · see citing works

The elastic and ultimate properties of compact bone tissue

Reilly, D. T., & Burstein, A. H. (1975) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(75)90075-5 · Cited by 1,533 · see citing works

Young's modulus of trabecular and cortical bone material: Ultrasonic and microtensile measurements

Rho, J. Y., Ashman, R. B., & Turner, C. H. (1993) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(93)90042-d · Cited by 1,283 · see citing works

A continuous wave technique for the measurement of the elastic properties of cortical bone

ASHMAN, R. B., Cowin, S. C., Buskirk, W. C. V., et al. (1984) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(84)90029-0 · Cited by 738 · see citing works

Aging of bone tissue: mechanical properties.

Burstein, A. H., Reilly, D. T., & Martens, M. A. (1976) · PubMed · Cited by 614 · see citing works

A method to produce uniform plane-stress states with applications to fiber-reinforced materials

Arcan, M., Hashin, Z., & Voloshin, A. (1978) · Experimental Mechanics · doi:10.1007/bf02324146 · Cited by 589 · see citing works

Factors Affecting the Determination of the Physical Properties of Femoral Cortical Bone

Sedlin, E. D., & Hirsch, C. (1966) · Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica · doi:10.3109/17453676608989401 · Cited by 586 · see citing works

The elastic moduli of human subchondral, trabecular, and cortical bone tissue and the size-dependency of cortical bone modulus

Choi, K., Kuhn, J. L., Ciarelli, M. J., & Goldstein, S. A. (1990) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(90)90003-l · Cited by 534 · see citing works

The elastic modulus for bone

Reilly, D. T., Burstein, A. H., & Frankel, V. H. (1974) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(74)90018-9 · Cited by 506 · see citing works

Limb Mechanics as A Function of Speed and Gait: A Study of Functional Strains in the Radius and Tibia of Horse and Dog

Rubin, C. T., & Lanyon, L. E. (1982) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.101.1.187 · Cited by 496 · see citing works

Biomechanical competence of vertebral trabecular bone in relation to ash density and age in normal individuals

Mosekilde, L., Mosekilde, L., & Danielsen, C. C. (1987) · Bone · doi:10.1016/8756-3282(87)90074-3 · Cited by 492 · see citing works

Elastic modulus of trabecular bone material

ASHMAN, R. B., & Rho, J. Y. (1988) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(88)90167-4 · Cited by 393 · see citing works

The fabric dependence of the orthotropic elastic constants of cancellous bone

Turner, C. H., Cowin, S. C., Rho, J. Y., ASHMAN, R. B., & Rice, J. C. (1990) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(90)90048-8 · Cited by 347 · see citing works

Limitations of the continuum assumption in cancellous bone

Harrigan, T. P., Jasty, M., Mann, R. W., & Harris, W. H. (1988) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(88)90257-6 · Cited by 305 · see citing works

The losipescu shear test as applied to composite materials

Walrath, D. E., & Adams, D. F. (1983) · Experimental Mechanics · doi:10.1007/bf02328688 · Cited by 271 · see citing works

Effects of freezing and freeze‐drying on the biomechanical properties of rat bone

Pelker, R. R., Friedlaender, G. E., Markham, T. C., et al. (1983) · Journal of Orthopaedic Research® · doi:10.1002/jor.1100010409 · Cited by 265 · see citing works

Bone creep-fatigue damage accumulation

Caler, W. E., & Carter, D. R. (1989) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(89)90013-4 · Cited by 263 · see citing works

A cumulative damage model for bone fracture

Carter, D. R. P., & Caler, W. E. (1985) · Journal of Orthopaedic Research® · doi:10.1002/jor.1100030110 · Cited by 260 · see citing works

Compact Bone Fatigue Damage

Carter, D. R. P., & Hayes, W. C. (1977) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1097/00003086-197709000-00039 · Cited by 258 · see citing works

Fatigue Behavior of Composite Laminate

Hahn, H. T., & Kim, R. Y. (1976) · Journal of Composite Materials · doi:10.1177/002199837601000205 · Cited by 257 · see citing works

Non-invasive measurement of long bone cross-sectional moment of inertia by photon absorptiometry

Martin, R. B., & Burr, D. B. (1984) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(84)90010-1 · Cited by 255 · see citing works

Ultrasonic wave propagation in human cortical bone—II. Measurements of elastic properties and microhardness

Yoon, H. S., & Katz, J. L. (1976) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(76)90089-0 · Cited by 254 · see citing works

The ultimate properties of bone tissue: The effects of yielding

Burstein, A. H., Currey, J. D., Frankel, V. H., & Reilly, D. T. (1972) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(72)90017-6 · Cited by 254 · see citing works

A comparison of the fatigue behavior of human trabecular and cortical bone tissue

Choi, K., & Goldstein, S. A. (1992) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(92)90051-2 · Cited by 247 · see citing works

A noninvasive, in vivo model for studying strain adaptive bone modeling

Turner, C. H., Akhter, M. P., Raab, D. M., et al. (1991) · Bone · doi:10.1016/8756-3282(91)90003-2 · Cited by 246 · see citing works

Compact bone as a non‐isotropic material

Dempster, W. T., & Liddicoat, R. T. (1952) · American Journal of Anatomy · doi:10.1002/aja.1000910302 · Cited by 235 · see citing works

Elastic properties of cancellous bone: Measurement by an ultrasonic technique

ASHMAN, R. B., CORIN, J. D., & Turner, C. H. (1987) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(87)90327-7 · Cited by 229 · see citing works

Sex differences in geometry of the femoral neck with aging: A structural analysis of bone mineral data

Beck, T., Ruff, C. B., Scott, W. W., Plato, C. C., Tobin, J. D., & Quan, C. A. (1992) · Calcified Tissue International · doi:10.1007/bf00297293 · Cited by 218 · see citing works

Regional Differences in Some of the Physical Properties of the Human Femur

Evans, F. G., & Lebow, M. (1951) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1951.3.9.563 · Cited by 217 · see citing works

Long-term fatigue behavior of compact bone at low strain magnitude and rate

Schaffler, M. B., Radin, E. L., & Burr, D. B. (1990) · Bone · doi:10.1016/8756-3282(90)90087-f · Cited by 216 · see citing works

Fatigue life of compact bone—II. Effects of microstructure and density

Carter, D. R. P., Hayes, W. C., & Schurman, D. J. (1976) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(76)90006-3 · Cited by 212 · see citing works

Musculoskeletal design in relation to body size

Biewener, A. A. (1991) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(91)90374-v · Cited by 203 · see citing works

Fatigue life of compact bone—I effects of stress amplitude, temperature and density

Carter, D. R., & Hayes, W. C. (1976) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(76)90136-6 · Cited by 188 · see citing works

Cosserat micromechanics of human bone: Strain redistribution by a hydration sensitive constituent

Park, H. C., & Lakes, R. S. (1986) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(86)90015-1 · Cited by 181 · see citing works

Viscoelastic properties of wet cortical bone—I. Torsional and biaxial studies

Lakes, R. S., Katz, J. L., & Sternstein, S. S. (1979) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(79)90016-2 · Cited by 180 · see citing works

Effect of embalming on the mechanical properties of beef bone

McElhaney, J. H., Fogle, J. L., Byars, E. F., et al. (1964) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/jappl.1964.19.6.1234 · Cited by 171 · see citing works

Comparison of the trabecular and cortical tissue moduli from human iliac crests

Kuhn, J. L., Goldstein, S. A., Choi, R., London, M., Feldkamp, L. A., & Matthews, L. S. (1989) · Journal of Orthopaedic Research® · doi:10.1002/jor.1100070614 · Cited by 164 · see citing works

The temperature dependence of the deformation of bone

Bonfield, W., & Li, C. H. (1968) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(68)90026-2 · Cited by 152 · see citing works

Long-Term Fatigue Behavior of Composite Materials

Reifsnider, K., Schulte, K., & Duke, J. C. (1983) · doi:10.1520/stp31820s · Cited by 144 · see citing works

Factors affecting the elasticity of bone.

SMITH, J. W., & WALMSLEY, R. (1959) · PubMed · Cited by 133 · see citing works

Cement Line Motion in Bone

Lakes, R. S., & Saha, S. (1979) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.432653 · Cited by 125 · see citing works

Ultrasonic velocity as a predictor of strength in bovine cancellous bone

Turner, C. H., & Eich, M. (1991) · Calcified Tissue International · doi:10.1007/bf02565132 · Cited by 124 · see citing works

Microdamage in response to repetitive torsional loading in the rat tibia

Forwood, M. R., & Parker, A. W. (1989) · Calcified Tissue International · doi:10.1007/bf02556660 · Cited by 114 · see citing works

Analysis of the Rail Shear Test-Applications and Limitations

Whitney, J. M., Stansbarger, D. L., & Howell, H. B. (1971) · Journal of Composite Materials · doi:10.1177/002199837100500103 · Cited by 107 · see citing works

The iosipescu shear test as applied to composite materials

Arcan, M. (1984) · Experimental Mechanics · doi:10.1007/bf02323208 · Cited by 100 · see citing works

Measurement of mechanical properties of bone material in vitro by ultrasound reflection: Methodology and comparison with ultrasound transmission

Antich, P. P., Anderson, J. A., ASHMAN, R. B., et al. (1991) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1002/jbmr.5650060414 · Cited by 94 · see citing works

Compressive axial strain distributions in cancellous bone specimens

Odgaard, A., Hvid, I., & Linde, F. (1989) · Journal of Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0021-9290(89)90066-3 · Cited by 85 · see citing works

The effects of fluoridated water on bone strength

Turner, C. H., Akhter, M. P., & Heaney, R. P. (1992) · Journal of Orthopaedic Research® · doi:10.1002/jor.1100100413 · Cited by 81 · see citing works

Geometric, elastic, and structural properties of maturing rat femora

Keller, T. S., Spengler, D. M., & Carter, D. R. (1986) · Journal of Orthopaedic Research® · doi:10.1002/jor.1100040107 · Cited by 80 · see citing works

Ultrasonic analysis of the Young's modulus of cortical bone

Bonfield, W., & Tully, A. E. (1982) · Journal of Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1016/0141-5425(82)90022-x · Cited by 68 · see citing works

Cancellous Bone Strength at the Proximal Human Tibia

Hvid, I., & Jensen, J. (1984) · Engineering in Medicine · doi:10.1243/emed_jour_1984_013_007_02 · Cited by 65 · see citing works

Influence of preservation on some mechanical properties of human haversian bone.

Komender, A. (1976) · PubMed · Cited by 53 · see citing works

Incorporation of sodium fluoride into cortical bone does not impair the mechanical properties of the appendicular skeleton in rats

Einhorn, T. A., Wakley, G. K., Linkhart, S. G., et al. (1992) · Calcified Tissue International · doi:10.1007/bf00298500 · Cited by 45 · see citing works

The evaluation of cortical bone remodeling with a new ultrasonic technique

Zimmerman, M. C., Meunier, A., Katz, J. L., et al. (1990) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/10.55634 · Cited by 31 · see citing works

Effects of exercise on bone growth mechanical and physical properties studied in the rat

Forwood, M. R., & Parker, A. W. (1987) · Clinical Biomechanics · doi:10.1016/0268-0033(87)90079-9 · Cited by 23 · see citing works

Measuring the moment of inertia of irregular cross sections

Martin, R. B. (1975) · Review of Scientific Instruments · doi:10.1063/1.1134349 · Cited by 9 · see citing works

The role of collagen in bone strength

Viguet-Carrin, S., Garnero, P., & Delmas, P. D. (2006) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-005-2035-9 · Cited by 1,047 · see citing works

Raloxifene, estrogen, and alendronate affect the processes of fracture repair differently in ovariectomized rats.

Cao, Y., Mori, S., Mashiba, T., Westmore, M. S., Ma, L., Sato, M., Akiyama, T., Shi, L., Komatsubara, S., Miyamoto, K., et al. (2002) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1359/jbmr.2002.17.12.2237 · Cited by 248 · see citing works

Bisphosphonate effects on bone turnover, microdamage, and mechanical properties: What we think we know and what we know that we don't know

Allen, M. R., & Burr, D. B. (2011) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2010.10.159 · Cited by 219 · see citing works

Oxytocin controls differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells and reverses osteoporosis

Elabd, C., Basillais, A., Beaupied, H., Breuil, V., Wagner, N., Scheideler, M., Zaragosi, L.-E., Massiéra, F., Lemichez, E., Trajanoski, Z., et al. (2008) · Stem Cells · doi:10.1634/stemcells.2008-0127 · Cited by 202 · see citing works

Estrogens Are Essential for Male Pubertal Periosteal Bone Expansion

Bouillon, R., Bex, M., Vanderschueren, D., & Boonen, S. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0602 · Cited by 200 · see citing works

Involvement of the gut microbiota and barrier function in glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis

Schepper, J. D., Collins, F., Rios-Arce, N. D., Kang, H. J., Schaefer, L., Gardinier, J. D., Raghuvanshi, R., Quinn, R. A., Britton, R., Parameswaran, N., et al. (2020) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1002/jbmr.3947 · Cited by 199 · see citing works

Probiotic <i>Lactobacillus reuteri</i> Prevents Postantibiotic Bone Loss by Reducing Intestinal Dysbiosis and Preventing Barrier Disruption

Schepper, J. D., Collins, F. L., Rios-Arce, N. D., Raehtz, S., Schaefer, L., Gardinier, J. D., Britton, R. A., Parameswaran, N., & McCabe, L. R. (2019) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1002/jbmr.3635 · Cited by 182 · see citing works

Increasing duration of type 1 diabetes perturbs the strength–structure relationship and increases brittleness of bone

Nyman, J. S., Even, J. L., Jo, C.-H., Herbert, E. G., Murry, M. R., Cockrell, G. E., Wahl, E. C., Bunn, R. C., Lumpkin, C. K., Fowlkes, J. L., et al. (2011) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2010.12.016 · Cited by 112 · see citing works

Long-term disuse osteoporosis seems less sensitive to bisphosphonate treatment than other osteoporosis.

Li, C. Y., Price, C., Delisser, K., Nasser, P., Laudier, D., Clement, M., Jepsen, K. J., & Schaffler, M. B. (2005) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1359/jbmr.041010 · Cited by 96 · see citing works

Absence of the proapoptotic Bax protein extends fertility and alleviates age-related health complications in female mice

Perez, G. I., Jurisicova, A., Wise, L., Lipina, T., Kanisek, M., Bechard, A., Takai, Y., Hunt, P., Roder, J., Grynpas, M., et al. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0608557104 · Cited by 92 · see citing works

Treatment with risedronate or alendronate prevents hind-limb immobilization-induced loss of bone density and strength in adult female rats.

Mosekilde, L., Thomsen, J. S., Mackey, M. S., & Phipps, R. J. (2000) · Bone · doi:10.1016/s8756-3282(00)00375-6 · Cited by 78 · see citing works

Kefir improves bone mass and microarchitecture in an ovariectomized rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis

Chen, H.-L., Tung, Y.-T., Chuang, C.-H., Tu, M.-Y., Tsai, T.-C., Chang, S.-Y., & Chen, C.-M. (2015) · Osteoporosis International · doi:10.1007/s00198-014-2908-x · Cited by 73 · see citing works

Bioabsorbable Miniplating Versus Metallic Fixation for Metacarpal Fractures

Waris, E., Ashammakhi, N., Happonen, H., Raatikainen, T., Kaarela, O., Törmälä, P., Santavirta, S., & Konttinen, Y. T. (2003) · Clinical Orthopaedics &amp; Related Research · doi:10.1097/01.blo.0000063789.32430.c6 · Cited by 58 · see citing works

Effects of Doxycycline on Mechanical Properties of Bones in Rats with Ovariectomy-Induced Osteopenia

Pytlik, M., Folwarczna, J., & Janiec, W. (2004) · Calcified Tissue International · doi:10.1007/s00223-004-0097-x · Cited by 58 · see citing works

Local strain and damage mapping in single trabeculae during three-point bending tests

Jungmann, R., Szabo, M. E., Schitter, G., Yue-Sing Tang, R., Vashishth, D., Hansma, P. K., & Thurner, P. J. (2011) · Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jmbbm.2010.12.009 · Cited by 57 · see citing works

Higher doses of bisphosphonates further improve bone mass, architecture, and strength but not the tissue material properties in aged rats

Shahnazari, M., Yao, W., Dai, W., Wang, B., Ionova-Martin, S. S., Ritchie, R. O., Heeren, D., Burghardt, A. J., Nicolella, D. P., Kimiecik, M. G., et al. (2010) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2009.11.019 · Cited by 46 · see citing works

The effects of osteoprotegerin on the mechanical properties of rat bone.

Ross, A. B., Bateman, T. A., Kostenuik, P. J., Ferguson, V. L., Lacey, D. L., Dunstan, C. R., & Simske, S. J. (2001) · Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine · doi:10.1023/a:1011229324412 · Cited by 39 · see citing works

Prevention of glucocorticoid induced bone changes with beta-ecdysone

Dai, W., Jiang, L., Lay, Y.-A. E., Chen, H., Jin, G., Zhang, H., Kot, A., Ritchie, R. O., Lane, N. E., & Yao, W. (2015) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2015.01.001 · Cited by 30 · see citing works

Moderate chronic kidney disease impairs bone quality in C57Bl/6J mice

Heveran, C. M., Ortega, A. M., Cureton, A., Clark, R., Livingston, E. W., Bateman, T. A., Levi, M., King, K. B., & Ferguson, V. L. (2016) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2016.02.006 · Cited by 25 · see citing works

β-Ecdysone Augments Peak Bone Mass in Mice of Both Sexes

Dai, W., Zhang, H., Zhong, Z. A., Jiang, L., Chen, H., Lay, Y.-A. E., Kot, A., Ritchie, R. O., Lane, N. E., & Yao, W. (2015) · Clinical Orthopaedics &amp; Related Research · doi:10.1007/s11999-015-4246-5 · Cited by 15 · see citing works

Effects of insulin therapy on porosity, non-enzymatic glycation and mechanical competence in the bone of rats with type 2 diabetes mellitus

Campbell, G. M., Tiwari, S., Picke, A.-K., Hofbauer, C., Rauner, M., Morlock, M. M., Hofbauer, L. C., & Glüer, C.-C. (2016) · Bone · doi:10.1016/j.bone.2016.08.003 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

The role of intermittent PTH administration in conjunction with allogenic stem cell treatment to stimulate fracture healing

Osagie-Clouard, L., Meeson, R., Sanghani-Kerai, A., Bostrom, M., Briggs, T., & Blunn, G. (2021) · Bone &amp; Joint Research · doi:10.1302/2046-3758.1010.bjr-2019-0371.r2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works

Keratin Scaffold Formulation Impacts rhBMP-2 Biodistribution and Bone Regeneration in a Rat Femur Defect Model

Saul, J. M., Bohnert, J. S., O’Brien, M., Alnuaimi, S., Carnwath, T. P., Dunivan, Q., Coffin, D. W., & Smith, T. L. (2025) · Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13770-025-00747-4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Susquehanna Chorale Spring Concert "Roots and Wings"

Hawkins, D. (2017)

Densitometry test of bone tissue: Validation of computer simulation studies

Binkowski, M., Tanck, E., Barink, M., et al. (2008) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2008.04.004 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

A comparison between slit densitometry and video densitometry for quantitation in thin layer chromatography

Mustoe, S., & McCrossen, S. D. (2001) · Chromatographia · doi:10.1007/bf02490381 · Cited by 13 · see citing works

Corneal Densitometry as a Tool to Measure Epithelial Ingrowth After Laser In Situ Keratomileusis

Adran, D., Vaillancourt, L., Harissi‐Dagher, M., et al. (2017) · Cornea · doi:10.1097/ico.0000000000001114 · Cited by 6 · see citing works

Osteoporosis by forearm bone densitometry in postmenopausal women in West Virginia.

Pfister, A. K., Welch, C. A., Saville, P. D., et al. (2007) · PubMed · Cited by 1 · see citing works