Decarbonising ships, planes and trucks: an analysis of suitable low-carbon fuels for the maritime, aviation and haulage sectors
Open accessAbstract
The high environmental impacts of transport mean that there is an increasing interest in utilising low-carbon alternative energy carriers and powertrains within the sector. While electricity has been mooted as the energy carrier of choice for passenger vehicles, as the mass and range of the vehicle increases, electrification becomes more difficult. This paper reviews the shipping, aviation and haulage sectors, and a range of low-carbon energy carriers (electricity, biofuels, hydrogen, and electrofuels) that can be used to decarbonise them. Energy carriers were assessed based on their energy density, specific energy, cost, lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions, and land-use. In terms of haulage, current battery electric vehicles may be technically feasible, however the specific energy of current battery technology reduces the payload capacity and range when compared to diesel. To alleviate these issues, biomethane represents a mature technology with potential co-benefits, while hydrogen is close to competitiveness but requires significant infrastructure. Energy density issues preclude the use of batteries in shipping which requires energy dense liquids or compressed gaseous fuels that allow for retrofits/current hull designs, with methanol being particularly appropriate here. Future shipping may be achieved with ammonia or hydrogen, but hull design will need to be changed significantly. Regulations and aircraft design mean that commercial aviation is dependant on drop-in jet fuels for the foreseeable future, with power-to-liquid fuels being deemed the most suitable option due to the scales required. Fuel costs and a lack of refuelling infrastructure were identified as key barriers facing the uptake of alternatives, with policy and financial incentives required to encourage the uptake of low-carbon fuels.
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Methanol can serve as an energy carrier for maritime fuel or as a feedstock that can be upgraded to SAF.
“Methanol is used as an example of an (intermediate) liquid fuel that can serve as an energy carrier for use as maritime fuel or as a feedstock that can be upgraded to SAF [20].”
From Locked in on RFNBOs – Will EU mandates for drop-in synthetic aviation fuels lead to decreased energy- and cost-efficiency? (2026) · cites this paper as [20]
Ideal characteristics for jet-alternative fuels are high energy density, high specific energy, high flash point, low emissions levels, low viscosities and freezing points, high thermal stability, and good lubrication properties.
“high energy density, high specific energy (to enhance the efficiency), high flash point (to be safe), low emissions levels, low vis cosities and freezing points (to ensure the fuel quality at reduced tem peratures), high thermal stability and good lubrication properties [52].”
From Assessing the future prospects of emerging technologies for shipping and aviation biofuels: A critical review (2024) · cites this paper as Gray et al. (2021)
Ideal characteristics for maritime fuels are high energy density, low emissions levels, reduced production and use costs, scalability, and compatibility with actual infrastructure.
“high energy density (to avoid the high storage volumes), low emissions levels, reduced production and use costs (to be attractive to replace the conventional ones), scalability (to be used for both short and long transport distances) and compatibility with actual infrastructure [52].”
From Assessing the future prospects of emerging technologies for shipping and aviation biofuels: A critical review (2024) · cites this paper as Gray et al. (2021)
Ideal characteristics for maritime fuels are high energy density, low emissions levels, reduced production and use costs, scalability, and compatibility with actual infrastructure.
“high energy density (to avoid the high storage volumes), low emissions levels, reduced production and use costs (to be attractive to replace the conventional ones), scalability (to be used for both short and long transport distances) and compatibility with actual infrastructure [52].”
From Assessing the future prospects of emerging technologies for shipping and aviation biofuels: A critical review (2024) · cites this paper as [52]
Ideal characteristics for jet-alternative fuels are high energy density, high specific energy, high flash point, low emissions levels, low viscosities and freezing points, high thermal stability, and good lubrication properties.
“high energy density, high specific energy (to enhance the efficiency), high flash point (to be safe), low emissions levels, low vis cosities and freezing points (to ensure the fuel quality at reduced tem peratures), high thermal stability and good lubrication properties [52].”
From Assessing the future prospects of emerging technologies for shipping and aviation biofuels: A critical review (2024) · cites this paper as [52]
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- Authors
- Gray, N., McDonagh, S., O'Shea, R., Smyth, B., & Murphy, J. D.
- Affiliations
- University College Cork (IE)
- Queen's University Belfast (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Murphy, Jerry D
- Venue
- Advances in Applied Energy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-02
- Volume
- 1
- Pages
- 100008
- ISSN
- 2666-7924 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3122164608
- Cited by
- 499
- References
- 103
- Citations by year
- 2026: 82 · 2025: 123 · 2024: 96 · 2023: 88 · 2022: 81 · 2021: 29
- FWCI
- 23.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Advances in Applied Energy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Research Portal (Queen's University Belfast) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Science Foundation Ireland
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Maritime Transport Emissions and Efficiency
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Advanced Aircraft Design and Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Energy Engineering and Power Technology › Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems
- Keywords
- transport decarbonization, low-carbon fuels, carriage of goods by sea, aviation, haulage, biofuels, hydrogen, electrofuels, power-to-liquids, methanol, ammonia, biomethane, battery electric vehicles, energy density, life cycle greenhouse gas emissions, land use, fuel infrastructure, policy incentives
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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