Cited by 175Impact of Technology on AdolescentsChild Development and Digital TechnologySexuality, Behavior, and Technology

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Smartphone and social media use contributed to individual tendencies towards social media addiction in Italian adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic

Marengo, Davide, Angelo Fabris, Matteo, Longobardi, Claudio, Settanni, Michele·2022·Addictive Behaviors

DOI 10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107204

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Abstract

Introduction Adolescents in remote education during the COVID-19 pandemic had few opportunities to socialize in person, resulting in a significant rise in the use of social networks or instant messaging applications. However, excessive use may promote addictive tendencies towards these platforms, with negative consequences for adolescents' well-being.Aims In this study, we investigated the prevalence of smartphone and social media application use in early-to-late adolescents in remote education. We examined the relative impact of different social media applications on self-reported tendencies toward social media addiction.Methods The sample consisted of 765 Italian adolescents (Age: M = 14.11 ± 2.2; 401 females) who reported on use of the smartphone, social media applications, namely WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat, Telegram, Messenger, and YouTube. Mean differences in social media addiction across group reporting different patterns of social media use were investigated. The contribution of each social media application in predicting social media addiction was determined using a random forest algorithm.Results On average, adolescents using just WhatsApp and YouTube reported the lowest social media addiction compared with peers also using Instagram or TikTok (or both of them). Overall, we found time spent on smartphone, and use of TikTok were the strongest predictors of social media addiction, followed by use of Facebook, Telegram, Messenger, and Twitter. Instagram, Snapchat, and WhatsApp use showed no effect when examined together with the other platforms.Conclusions Findings indicated that TikTok was the most addictive application during the COVID-19 pandemic, overshadowing other very popular applications with similar visual affordances.

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“…mobile applications, such as social media, on users’ mental wellness, including psychological dependence (Wang et al. 2015a), social media addiction (Marengo et al. 2022), anxiety (Van-nucci, Flannery, and Ohannessian 2017), depression (Woods and Scott 2016), and displeasure (Jeong et al. 2019).”
Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Ekran Ötesindeki Bağımlılık Serüveni: Tiktok Kullanım Motivasyonları Ve Bağımlılık Arasındaki İlişki
Balcı, Ş., Akgül, T. E., & Astam, F. K. (2024) · Erciyes İletişim Dergisi · doi:10.17680/erciyesiletisim.1442074 · Cited by 9
Ecological Thinking about the Metaverse from a Posthumanist Perspective
Liu, Y. (2023) · Critical Arts · doi:10.1080/02560046.2023.2276423 · Cited by 10
“A survey from Italy indicates that TikTok ranks as the most relevant contribution among the social media platforms (Marengo et al. 2022).”
Üniversite Gençliğinin TikTok Kullanımı: Duygusal ve Sosyal Yalnızlık ile TikTok Bağımlılığı Arasındaki İlişki
Balcı, Ş., PINARBAŞI, T. E., & ASTAM, F. K. (2024) · Türkiye İletişim Araştırmaları Dergisi · doi:10.17829/turcom.1373818 · Cited by 11
Smartphone Addiction among Adolescents in Southern Italy and Correlation with Other Risky Behaviors
Cali, M. A. A., Fernández-López, L., Zaragoza, J. N., Caravaca-Sánchez, F., & Romero, M. F. (2024) · Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría · doi:10.62641/aep.v52i5.1664 · Cited by 15
Visualizing Age-Specific Digital Platform Usage in Germany
Bobzien, L., Verwiebe, R., & Kalleitner, F. (2025) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231251319360 · Cited by 9
“…research has argued that generational differences in exposure to technology during formative years may result in cohort-specific behavior patterns (Marengo et al. 2022; Vannucci et al. 2020) and that younger generations adapt to emerging platforms more fluidly (Klopfenstein Frei et al. 2024),…”
Should educators be concerned? The impact of short videos on rational thinking and learning: A comparative analysis
Otto, T. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105330 · Cited by 18
Youth Attitudes Towards the effects of social media addiction A study on college students in the United Arab Emirates
Akhtar, F., & Al-Ali, F. A. A. (2025) · Dirasat Human and Social Sciences · doi:10.35516/hum.2025.7921 · Cited by 8
Increasing adoption despite perceived limitations of social media in emergencies: Representative insights on German citizens’ perception and trends from 2017 to 2021
Reuter, C., Kaufhold, M., Biselli, T., & Pleil, H. (2023) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103880 · Cited by 8
Sexting, fear of missing out (FOMO), and problematic social network use among adolescents
Tomczyk, Ł., & Szotkowski, R. (2023) · Human Technology · doi:10.14254/1795-6889.2023.19-2.8 · Cited by 8
“…two risk behaviours associated with problematic Internet use are currently heavily debated in terms of diagnostic criteria (Atroszko et al., 2022; Marengo et al., 2022), while the third behaviour, sexting, is a phenomenon fraught with many stereotypes and overinterpretations (Ng et al., 2022;…”
Background
Acupuncture ameliorates Mobile Phone Addiction with sleep disorders and restores salivary metabolites rhythm
Yang, H. Y., Yang, K., Zhang, L., Yang, N., Mei, Y.-X., Zheng, Y.-L., He, Y., Gong, Y., & Ding, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1106100 · Cited by 7
“The incidence of MPA has dramatically increased during the COVID-19 pandemic (5).”
Background
When ethnic minorities hit the headlines: The longitudinal associations between news features and adolescents' ethnic prejudice
Bobba, B., Miniati, A., & Crocetti, E. (2024) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.13013 · Cited by 7
“The same effect, however, was not found for media salience on Twitter, possibly because this social media is not the preferred platform among Italian adolescents (Marengo et al., 2022).”
Media-related parenting and children’s media use among Chinese young children during the post-pandemic age: a large-scale representative study
Peng, Q., Wan, X., Li-min, Z., & Wang, X. (2024) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2024.2426573 · Cited by 7
“Short videos have an interactive design that captures children’s attention and emphasizes immersive virtual experiences, which may further enable children to actively increase their time spent using the media (Marengo, Angelo Fabris, Longobardi, & Settanni, 2022).”
The Relationship of Job Satisfaction with Nomophobia and Social Media Addiction in Healthcare Professionals: A Cross-sectional Study
Al, A. F., Başpınar, M. M., & Basat, O. (2022) · Bagcilar Medical Bulletin · doi:10.4274/bmb.galenos.2022.2022-06-052 · Cited by 6
“In addition, increasing usage trend has emerged as increasing addictions such as social media addiction, internet addiction, and mobile phone addiction through different social media applications (9).”
Exploring the influence of instagram use on materialism and situational intrinsic learning motivation: An online experimental study
Otto, T., & Thies, B. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12762-4 · Cited by 9
“Several studies have shown that the use of Instagram is associated with more PSMU or PSU compared to the use of other social media raising concerns and increasing the need for research about Ins-tagram use (Limniou et al., 2022; Marengo et al., 2022; Rozgonjuk et al., 2018).”
Nighttime Phone Use and Past Exposure to Cyberbullying and Their Impact on Sleep and Psychological Wellbeing in Australian Children Aged 7 to 19 Years
Centofanti, S. A., Lushington, K., Wicking, A., Wicking, P., & Dorrian, J. (2024) · Adolescents · doi:10.3390/adolescents4030025 · Cited by 7
“In particular, adolescents who spend more time on their smartphone consuming social media are at a higher risk of social media addiction [55] which, in turn, is associated with greater nighttime social media use and worse sleep quality [46].”
Background
The effect of TikTok use on internet addiction of college students in Somalia: a cross-sectional study
Gezginci, E., & Eker, H. H. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Health Research · doi:10.1080/09603123.2024.2448488 · Cited by 6
“…that TikTok is the most popular social media platform among adolescent and college students compared to other social media platforms such as Snapchat, Instagram, X (Twitter), YouTube, and Facebook, and is the strongest determinant of social media addiction (Marengo et al. 2022; Xie and Gallo 2024).”
The effect of social media use on suicidal ideation in college students: Mediation by daytime sleepiness and sleep quality
Ma, Y., Zheng, Z.-A., Yao, Z.-Y., Xu, X., Zhou, X.-Y., Kou, C., Yao, B., Sun, W., Li, R., Xiao-jie, G., et al. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.01.049 · Cited by 6
Adolescents’ adverse family context and intimate partner violence: Mediating role of social media experience
Terrell, A., Wickrama, T., Merten, M. J., & Becnel, J. N. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03160-5 · Cited by 6
The Trap of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Italian Adolescents Fare Well at First, Maybe Thanks to Protective Trait Expression
Malerba, A., Iannattone, S., Casano, G., Lauriola, M., & Bottesi, G. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9111631 · Cited by 8
“ones became prominent to many [5], learning modalities changed radically, and exposure to the family environment suddenly increased [6].”
Background
Adolescent Social Media Use and Depression: A Person-Centered Approach
Lin, S., & Longobardi, C. (2025) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-025-01819-1 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Checking in to Check out? The Effect of Boredom on Craving, Behavioural Inhibition and Social Networking Site Use
Kolas, J., & von Mühlenen, A. (2024) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-024-01349-2 · Cited by 7
“Not surprisingly, time spent on SNS (and smartphones) predicts the risk of SNS addiction (Hong et al., 2014; Marengo et al., 2022), and that time is predicted by users’ positive affective forecast of SNS use (Baum & Baumann, 2021).”
Predictive Power of Leisure Boredom on Social Media Addiction in University Students
UGURLU, A. (2023) · Akdeniz Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.38021/asbid.1265805 · Cited by 5
Impulsivity and its relationships with social media addiction, internet addiction, and smartphone addiction
Miezah, D., Mahama, I., Moustafa, A. A., Nkrumah, I. K., Oti-Boadi, M., & Asante, K. O. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-13437-1.00013-6 · Cited by 4
Changes in Internet Activities and Influencing Factors for Problematic Internet Use During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Korean Adolescents: Repeated Cross-Sectional Study
Kim, S., Jin, J.-C., Yoo, S.-K., & Han, D. H. (2025) · JMIR Pediatrics and Parenting · doi:10.2196/66448 · Cited by 4
Analyzing nomophobia among TikTok users: a data mining and text analysis approach
Balcıoğlu, Y. S., & Artar, M. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08416-4 · Cited by 4
“Addi - tionally, further research could explore the effectiveness of different intervention strategies in reducing nomophobic behaviors and perceived risks associated with smartphone use (Marengo et al., 2022 ).”
Native, addict, innovator: young teachers' digital competence in the post-COVID-19 instructional era
Jogezai, N. A., & Baloch, F. A. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Management · doi:10.1108/ijem-03-2023-0148 · Cited by 7
Collective impression management and collective privacy concerns in co-owned information disclosure: the mediating role of relationship support and relationship risk
Feng, Y., Zhang, Y., & Li, L. (2023) · Library Hi Tech · doi:10.1108/lht-05-2023-0196 · Cited by 4
The Use of Physical Activity Mobile Apps Improves the Psychological State of Adolescents: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Mateo‐Orcajada, A., Vaquero‐Cristóbal, R., & Abenza‐Cano, L. (2024) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1155/2024/4687827 · Cited by 7
“One possible explanation for these results is that one of the most determining aspects of problematic mobile phone use is the type of applications or content viewed on them [88].”
Concern about Appearance on Social Media: Psychometric Evaluation and Item Response Theory Analysis with Iranian University Students
Orfi, K., Ahmadkaraji, S., Farahani, H., Watson, P., & Athar, M. E. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2267919 · Cited by 4
“…through some movements such as the body positivity movement (Lazuka et al., 2023) and the extensions of health belief models (Azadi et al., 2021), The situation has even escalated and worsened with the advent of image-based social media platforms (IBSM) (Elhai et al., 2018; Marengo et al., 2022).”
Time is target for gen Z: increased time online during the pandemic and cyber victimization
Rosén, L., Rubin, L. J., Dali, S., Llanes, D. M., Lopez, A., Romines, A., & Saunders, S. A. (2024) · Young Consumers Insight and Ideas for Responsible Marketers · doi:10.1108/yc-07-2023-1787 · Cited by 4
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 4 Years after the COVID-19 Pandemic in Adolescents with Different Levels of Physical Activity Engagement: A Repeated Cross-Sectional Study
Martino, G. D., Centorbi, M., Buonsenso, A., Fiorilli, G., Valle, C. D., Calcagno, G., Iuliano, E., & di Cagno, A. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21080975 · Cited by 4
“Coping strategies refer to a sequence of actions or cognitive processes employed when encountering a challenging or unpleasant situation, aimed at managing or altering one’s response to it [12].”
Background
The relationship between autistic traits, social media addiction, and loneliness in adolescents with ADHD
Onat, M., Kılıç, D. E. S. M., Ünver, A. B. N., Özyurt, G., Dinç, G. Ş., & Çöp, E. (2025) · Pediatrics International · doi:10.1111/ped.70064 · Cited by 3
Social Media Addiction Among Nursing Students and Its Related Factors
Yeşi̇ltepe, A., Demirkıran, B. C., & Çam, S. D. (2023) · Makara Journal of Health Research · doi:10.7454/msk.v27i1.1417 · Cited by 3
“WhatsApp and mobile devices the most to follow social media.(35) Smartphone addiction in nursing/midwifery”
Identity Distress, Confusion, Synthesis, and Social Media Use for Coping: Implications for Identity Development
Michikyan, M., Subrahmanyam, K., Regan, P. C., Bessaha, M. L., Bartholomew, J. B., Cano, M. Á., Meca, A., & Schwartz, S. J. (2024) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2024.2379411 · Cited by 7
“It is noteworthy that frequent use of social media during an adverse collective life event may undermine psychosocial well-being (e.g., by exposing users to anxiety-inducing information) and potentiate social media addiction (Marengo et al., 2022; Zhao & Zhou, 2020).”
Being kicked out of a WhatsApp group: Frequency and association with adolescents’ psychosocial well-being and School Achievement
Lin, S., Longobardi, C., Fabris, M. A., & Settanni, M. (2024) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075241298148 · Cited by 4
“…groups allow adolescents to maintain connections with peers beyond the physical con ﬁ nes of the school or neighborhood and foster a sense of belonging and group identity that can be critical to their psychological well-being and development (Marengo et al., 2021, 2022; Subrahmanyam et al., 2008).”
Self-citation
Cross-sectional study to analyse the pattern of smartphone usage among adolescents in urban slum of a metropolitan city
Qureshi, K., Thore, P., & Rajan, S. (2022) · International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20221242 · Cited by 3
Investigation of the Relationship between Creative Personality Traits and Internet Usage of Fine Arts Faculty Students
Öztürk, M. S., & Öztürk, M. Ü. (2023) · International Journal of Education in Mathematics Science and Technology · doi:10.46328/ijemst.3999 · Cited by 3
Social media and education: perspectives on digital inclusion in the university setting
Erazo-Moreno, M. M., Córdova, G. M. V., Sánchez, G. A. Á., Quispe-Anccasi, F. K., & Saavedra, S. S. P. (2024) · Data & Metadata · doi:10.56294/dm2024299 · Cited by 4
COVID-19-Related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders Relation With Social Media Addiction Among University Students: Mediating Role of Fear of Missing Out
Zhang, H.-X. (2024) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2024.0112 · Cited by 4
“…and it is the overuse of social media via smartphones and the Internet that results in problematic smartphone use and Internet addiction, 53,54 it is not unreasonably to expect that the association between CO-VID-19-related PTSD symptoms and SMA among university students might also be the…”
Background
Predictive Capacity of Social Media Addiction on Academic Engagement in University Students
Roque Herrera, Y., Alonso-García, S., Tenelanda López, D. V., & López Núñez, J. A. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15121677 · Cited by 2
Social Media and Selfie-Related Mortality Amid COVID-19: Interrupted Time Series Analysis
Kang‐Auger, S., Lewin, A., Ayoub, A., Bilodeau‐Bertrand, M., Marcoux, S., & Auger, N. (2023) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/42857 · Cited by 2
“Platforms like TikTok, known for spreading dangerous challenges, became very popular [18,19].”
Background
The Influence of Likes and Sexist Attitudes on Adolescent Self-Esteem in Social Networks
Valdés, Y. F., Rojas, A. D. G., Gómez, Á. H., & Olvera, F. J. D. R. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21121647 · Cited by 2

Authors: Marengo, D., Angelo Fabris, M., Longobardi, C., & Settanni, M.
Affiliations: University of Turin (IT)
Corresponding author: Longobardi, Claudio
ORCID: Marengo, Davide
Longobardi, Claudio
Settanni, Michele
Venue: Addictive Behaviors
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2022-03
Volume: 126
Pages: 107204
ISSN: 0306-4603 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107204
OpenAlex: W3216036569
Cited by: 175
References: 38
Citations by year: 2026: 21 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 18
FWCI: 39.82
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-017 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-012 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-004 (stm-asf)
Locations: Addictive Behaviors (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Institutional Research Information System University of Turin (University of Turin) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
Keywords: social media addiction, adolescents, smartphone use, COVID-19 pandemic, distance education, TikTok, Instagram, WhatsApp, YouTube, instant messaging apps, social networking sites, visual affordances, youth welfare
MeSH terms: Smartphone, Internet Addiction Disorder, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Adolescent, Female, Humans, Pandemics, Social Media

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Smartphone and social media use contributed to individual tendencies towards social media addiction in Italian adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic

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