CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 175Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderSchizophrenia research and treatmentPharmaceutical studies and practices

Risks and benefits of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder medication on behavioral and neuropsychiatric outcomes: a qualitative review of pharmacoepidemiology studies using linked prescription databases

Open access
Chang, Zheng, Ghirardi, Laura, Quinn, Patrick D., Asherson, Philip, D’Onofrio, Brian M., Larsson, Henrik·2019·Biological Psychiatry
DOI 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.009PMC PMC6697582
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medication is one of the most commonly prescribed medication classes in child and adolescent psychiatry, and its use is increasing rapidly in adult psychiatry. However, major questions and concerns remain regarding the benefits and risks of ADHD medication, especially in real-world settings. We conducted a qualitative systematic review of studies that investigated the effects of ADHD medication on behavioral and neuropsychiatric outcomes using linked prescription databases from the last 10 years and identified 40 studies from Europe, North America, and Asia. Among them, 18 used within-individual designs to account for confounding by indication. These studies suggested short-term beneficial effects of ADHD medication on several behavioral or neuropsychiatric outcomes (i.e., injuries, motor vehicle accidents, education, substance use disorder), with estimates suggesting relative risk reduction of 9% to 58% for these outcomes. The within-individual studies found no evidence of increased risks for suicidality and seizures. Replication studies are needed for several other important outcomes (i.e., criminality, depression, mania, psychosis). The available evidence from pharmacoepidemiology studies on long-term effects of ADHD medication was less clear. We discuss time-varying confounding and other limitations that should be considered when interpreting results from pharmacoepidemiology studies. Furthermore, we highlight several knowledge gaps to be addressed in future research and implications for research on mechanisms of outcomes of ADHD medications.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.009

Cites

25 of 25 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Injuries and accidents are consistently linked to ADHD and shown to be reduced by medication, providing an objective measure of functional impairment.

    “Injuries and accidents, consistently linked to ADHD and shown to be reduced by medication,12 provided an objective measure of functional impairment.”

    From Evaluating ADHD medication trial representativeness: a Swedish population-based study comparing hypothetically trial-eligible and trial-ineligible individuals (2025) · cites this paper as [12]

    The Injuries and traumas and Motor vehicle accidents sections (page unavailable) report lower risks associated with ADHD medication, supporting the reduction part of the cited clause. They describe associations rather than establishing that medication causes the reductions, and the accident findings differ by sex. The paper does not establish the separate assertion that injuries and accidents are consistently linked to ADHD; the objective-measure framing appears to be the citing authors’ own. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 78

  1. [2]Lahey BB, Lee SS, Sibley MH, Applegate B, Molina BSG, Pelham WE. Predictors of adolescent outcomes among 4–6-year-old children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 2016; 125: 168– 181. 26854503 PMC4747048
  2. [3]Costello EJ, Maughan B. Annual research review: Optimal outcomes of child and adolescent mental illness. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2015; 56: 324– 341. 25496295 PMC4557213
  3. [5]Xu G, Strathearn L, Liu B, Yang B, Bao W. Twenty-year trends in diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among us children and adolescents, 1997–2016. JAMA Network Open. 2018; 1: e181471. 30646132 PMC6324288
  4. [7]Jensen CM, Steinhausen HC. Comorbid mental disorders in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a large nationwide study. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders. 2015; 7: 27– 38. 24942707
  5. [9]Thapar A, Cooper M. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Lancet. 2016; 387: 1240– 1250. 26386541
  6. [10]Dalsgaard S, Øtergaard SD, Leckman JF, Mortensen PB, Pedersen MG. Mortality in children, adolescents, and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A nationwide cohort study. Lancet. 2015; 385: 2190– 2196. 25726514
  7. [11]Hechtman L, Swanson JM, Sibley MH, Stehli A, Owens EB, Mitchell JT, Arnold LE, Molina BS, Hinshaw SP, Jensen PS, Abikoff HB, Perez Algorta G, Howard AL, Hoza B, Etcovitch J, Houssais S, Lakes KD, Nichols JQ, Group MTAC. Functional Adult Outcomes 16 Years After Childhood Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: MTA Results. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016; 55: 945– 952 e942. 27806862 PMC5113724
  8. [14]Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Steering Committee on Quality Improvement and Management. ADHD: Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2011; 128: 1007– 1022. 22003063 PMC4500647
  9. [15]AACAP Official Action. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007; 46: 894– 921. 17581453
  10. [16]Chan E, Fogler JM, Hammerness PG. Treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: A systematic review. JAMA. 2016; 315: 1997– 2008. 27163988
  11. [17]Raman SR, Man KKC, Bahmanyar S, Berard A, Bilder S, Boukhris T, Bushnell G, Crystal S, Furu K, KaoYang YH, Karlstad O, Kieler H, Kubota K, Lai EC, Martikainen JE, Maura G, Moore N, Montero D, Nakamura H, Neumann A, Pate V, Pottegard A, Pratt NL, Roughead EE, Macias Saint-Gerons D, Sturmer T, Su CC, Zoega H, Sturkenbroom M, Chan EW, Coghill D, Ip P, Wong ICK. Trends in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder medication use: a retrospective observational study using population-based databases. The lancet Psychiatry. 2018; 5: 824– 835. 30220514
  12. [18]Sultan RS, Correll CU, Schoenbaum M, King M, Walkup JT, Olfson M. National Patterns of Commonly Prescribed Psychotropic Medications to Young People. Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology. 2018; 28: 158– 165. 29376743 PMC5905871
  13. [19]Shaw P Quantifying the benefits and risks of methylphenidate as treatment for childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA. 2016; 315: 1953– 1955. 27163984
  14. [21]Frieden TR. Evidence for Health Decision Making — Beyond Randomized, Controlled Trials. N Engl J Med. 2017; 377: 465– 475. 28767357
  15. [22]Deaton A, Cartwright N. Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials. Soc Sci Med. 2018; 210: 2– 21. 29331519 PMC6019115
  16. [24]Kollins SH. Moving beyond symptom remission to optimize long-term treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. JAMA pediatrics. 2018. 30105354
  17. [25]Carpentier PJ, Levin FR. Pharmacological Treatment of ADHD in Addicted Patients: What Does the Literature Tell Us? Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2017; 25: 50– 64. 28272130 PMC5518741
  18. [26]Crunelle CL, van den Brink W, Moggi F, Konstenius M, Franck J, Levin FR, van de Glind G, Demetrovics Z, Coetzee C, Luderer M, Schellekens A, Matthys F. International Consensus Statement on Screening, Diagnosis and Treatment of Substance Use Disorder Patients with Comorbid Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Eur Addict Res. 2018; 24: 43– 51. 29510390 PMC5986068
  19. [27]Greenhill L, Kollins S, Abikoff H, McCracken J, Riddle M, Swanson J, McGough J, Wigal S, Wigal TIM, Vitiello B, Skrobala A, Posner K, Ghuman J, Cunningham C, Davies M, Chuang S, Cooper TOM. Efficacy and Safety of Immediate-Release Methylphenidate Treatment for Preschoolers With ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006; 45: 1284– 1293. 17023867
  20. [28]Charach A, Carson P, Fox S, Ali MU, Beckett J, Lim CG. Interventions for Preschool Children at High Risk for ADHD: A Comparative Effectiveness Review. Pediatrics. 2013. 23545375
  21. [29]Corrigan-Curay J, Sacks L, Woodcock J. Real-world evidence and real-world data for evaluating drug safety and effectiveness. JAMA. 2018; 320: 867– 868. 30105359
  22. [31]Leucht S, Davis JM. Enthusiasm and Skepticism About Using National Registers to Analyze Psychotropic Drug Outcomes. JAMA psychiatry. 2018; 75: 314– 315. 29490368
  23. [32]Sonuga-Barke EJ. Can Medication Effects Be Determined Using National Registry Data? A Cautionary Reflection on Risk of Bias in “Big Data” Analytics. Biological psychiatry. 2016; 80: 893– 895. 27839559
  24. [33]Kyriacou DN, Lewis RJ. Confounding by Indication in Clinical Research. Jama. 2016; 316: 1818– 1819. 27802529
  25. [34]Hallas J, Pottegard A. Use of self-controlled designs in pharmacoepidemiology. J Intern Med. 2014; 275: 581– 589. 24635348
  26. [35]Petersen I, Douglas I, Whitaker H. Self controlled case series methods: an alternative to standard epidemiological study designs. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2016; 354: i4515. 27618829
  27. [36]Graham J, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, Coghill D, Danckaerts M, Dittmann RW, Dopfner M, Hamilton R, Hollis C, Holtmann M, Hulpke-Wette M, Lecendreux M, Rosenthal E, Rothenberger A, Santosh P, Sergeant J, Simonoff E, Sonuga-Barke E, Wong IC, Zuddas A, Steinhausen HC, Taylor E, European Guidelines G. European guidelines on managing adverse effects of medication for ADHD. European child & adolescent psychiatry. 2011; 20: 17– 37. 21042924 PMC3012210
  28. [37]Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009; 6: e1000097. 19621072 PMC2707599
  29. [38]Chen VC, Yang YH, Liao YT, Kuo TY, Liang HY, Huang KY, Huang YC, Lee Y, McIntyre RS, Lin TC. The association between methylphenidate treatment and the risk for fracture among young ADHD patients: A nationwide population-based study in Taiwan. PloS one. 2017; 12: e0173762. 28296941 PMC5351966
  30. [39]Dalsgaard S, Leckman JF, Mortensen PB, Nielsen HS, Simonsen M. Effect of drugs on the risk of injuries in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a prospective cohort study. The lancet Psychiatry. 2015; 2: 702– 709. 26249301
  31. [40]Jacob L, Kostev K. Impact of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder therapy on fracture risk in children treated in German pediatric practices. Osteoporosis International. 2017; 28: 1265– 1269. 27882412
  32. [42]Marcus SC, Wan GJ, Zhang HF, Olfson M. Injury among stimulant-treated youth with ADHD. Journal of attention disorders. 2008; 12: 64– 69. 17934179
  33. [43]Mikolajczyk R, Horn J, Schmedt N, Langner I, Lindemann C, Garbe E. Injury prevention by medication among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a case-only study. JAMA pediatrics. 2015; 169: 391– 395. 25686215
  34. [44]Raman SR, Marshall SW, Haynes K, Gaynes BN, Naftel AJ, Sturmer T. Stimulant treatment and injury among children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: an application of the self-controlled case series study design. Injury prevention: journal of the International Society for Child and Adolescent Injury Prevention. 2013; 19: 164– 170. 23143347
  35. [45]van den Ban E, Souverein P, Meijer W, van Engeland H, Swaab H, Egberts T, Heerdink E. Association between ADHD drug use and injuries among children and adolescents. European child & adolescent psychiatry. 2014; 23: 95– 102. 23733150
  36. [47]Chien W-C, Chung C-H, Lin F-H, Yeh C-B, Huang S-Y, Lu R-B, Chang H-A, Kao Y-C, Chiang W-S, Chou Y-C, Tsao C-H, Wu Y-F, Tzeng N-S. The risk of injury in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A nationwide, matched-cohort, population-based study in Taiwan. Research in developmental disabilities. 2017; 65: 57– 73. 28458048
  37. [48]Liou YJ, Wei HT, Chen MH, Hsu JW, Huang KL, Bai YM, Su TP, Li CT, Yang AC, Tsai SJ, Lin WC, Chen TJ. Risk of Traumatic Brain Injury Among Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Taiwan. The Journal of adolescent health: official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine. 2018; 63: 233– 238. 29970331
  38. [49]Chang Z, Lichtenstein P, D’Onofrio BM, Sjolander A, Larsson H. Serious transport accidents in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the effect of medication: a population-based study. JAMA psychiatry. 2014; 71: 319– 325. 24477798 PMC3949159
  39. [51]Lu Y, Sjolander A, Cederlof M, D’Onofrio BM, Almqvist C, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P. Association Between Medication Use and Performance on Higher Education Entrance Tests in Individuals With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. JAMA psychiatry. 2017; 74: 815– 822. 28658471 PMC5710548
  40. [52]Marcus SC, Durkin M. Stimulant adherence and academic performance in urban youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2011; 50: 480– 489. 21515197
  41. [53]van der Schans J, Cicek R, Vardar S, Bos JH, de Vries TW, Hoekstra PJ, Hak E. Methylphenidate use and school performance among primary school children: a descriptive study. BMC psychiatry. 2017; 17: 116. 28356095 PMC5371237
  42. [54]Zoega H, Rothman KJ, Huybrechts KF, Olafsson O, Baldursson G, Almarsdottir AB, Jonsdottir S, Halldorsson M, Hernandez-Diaz S, Valdimarsdottir UA. A population-based study of stimulant drug treatment of ADHD and academic progress in children. Pediatrics. 2012; 130: e53– 62. 22732167
  43. [55]Jangmo A, Stalhandske A, Chang Z, Chen Q, Almqvist C, Feldman I, Bulik CM, Lichtenstein P, D’Onofrio B, Kuja-Halkola R, Larsson H. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, School Performance, and Effect of Medication. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2019. PMC6541488 30768391
  44. [57]Lichtenstein P, Halldner L, Zetterqvist J, Sjolander A, Serlachius E, Fazel S, Langstrom N, Larsson H. Medication for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and criminality. The New England journal of medicine. 2012; 367: 2006– 2014. 23171097 PMC3664186
  45. [58]Mohr-Jensen C, Bisgaard CM, Boldsen SK, Steinhausen HC. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Childhood and Adolescence and the Risk of Crime in Young Adulthood in a Danish Nationwide Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2019. 30768385
  46. [60]Huang KL, Wei HT, Hsu JW, Bai YM, Su TP, Li CT, Lin WC, Tsai SJ, Chang WH, Chen TJ, Chen MH. Risk of suicide attempts in adolescents and young adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a nationwide longitudinal study. The British journal of psychiatry: the journal of mental science. 2018; 212: 234– 238. 29501070
  47. [61]Liang SH, Yang YH, Kuo TY, Liao YT, Lin TC, Lee Y, McIntyre RS, Kelsen BA, Wang TN, Chen VC. Suicide risk reduction in youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder prescribed methylphenidate: A Taiwan nationwide population-based cohort study. Research in developmental disabilities. 2018; 72: 96– 105. 29121517
  48. [62]Linden S, Bussing R, Kubilis P, Gerhard T, Segal R, Shuster JJ, Winterstein AG. Risk of Suicidal Events With Atomoxetine Compared to Stimulant Treatment: A Cohort Study. Pediatrics. 2016; 137. 27244795 PMC4845870
  49. [63]Man KKC, Coghill D, Chan EW, Lau WCY, Hollis C, Liddle E, Banaschewski T, McCarthy S, Neubert A, Sayal K, Ip P, Schuemie MJ, Sturkenboom M, Sonuga-Barke E, Buitelaar J, Carucci S, Zuddas A, Kovshoff H, Garas P, Nagy P, Inglis SK, Konrad K, Hage A, Rosenthal E, Wong ICK. Association of Risk of Suicide Attempts With Methylphenidate Treatment. JAMA psychiatry. 2017; 74: 1048– 1055. 28746699 PMC5710471
  50. [65]Steinhausen HC, Bisgaard C. Substance use disorders in association with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, co-morbid mental disorders, and medication in a nationwide sample. European neuropsychopharmacology: the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology. 2014; 24: 232– 241. 24314850
  51. [66]Quinn PD, Chang Z, Hur K, Gibbons RD, Lahey BB, Rickert ME, Sjolander A, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H, D’Onofrio BM. ADHD Medication and Substance-Related Problems. The American journal of psychiatry. 2017; 174: 877– 885. 28659039 PMC5581231
  52. [68]Lee MJ, Yang KC, Shyu YC, Yuan SS, Yang CJ, Lee SY, Lee TL, Wang LJ. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, its treatment with medication and the probability of developing a depressive disorder: A nationwide population-based study in Taiwan. Journal of affective disorders. 2016; 189: 110– 117. 26433758
  53. [69]Viktorin A, Ryden E, Thase ME, Chang Z, Lundholm C, D’Onofrio BM, Almqvist C, Magnusson PK, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H, Landen M. The Risk of Treatment-Emergent Mania With Methylphenidate in Bipolar Disorder. The American journal of psychiatry. 2017; 174: 341– 348. 27690517 PMC6641557
  54. [70]Wang LJ, Shyu YC, Yuan SS, Yang CJ, Yang KC, Lee TL, Lee SY. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, its pharmacotherapy, and the risk of developing bipolar disorder: A nationwide population-based study in Taiwan. Journal of psychiatric research. 2016; 72: 6– 14. 26519764
  55. [72]Shyu YC, Yuan SS, Lee SY, Yang CJ, Yang KC, Lee TL, Wang LJ. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, methylphenidate use and the risk of developing schizophrenia spectrum disorders: A nationwide population-based study in Taiwan. Schizophrenia research. 2015; 168: 161– 167. 26363968
  56. [73]Liu X, Carney PR, Bussing R, Segal R, Cottler LB, Winterstein AG. Stimulants Do Not Increase the Risk of Seizure-Related Hospitalizations in Children with Epilepsy. Journal of child and adolescent psychopharmacology. 2018; 28: 111– 116. 29028437 PMC5911707
  57. [74]McAfee AT, Holdridge KC, Johannes CB, Hornbuckle K, Walker AM. The effect of pharmacotherapy for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on risk of seizures in pediatric patients as assessed in an insurance claims database. Current drug safety. 2008; 3: 123– 131. 18690990
  58. [75]McAfee AT, Landon J, Jones M, Bangs ME, Acharya N, Hornbuckle K, Wong J. A cohort study of the risk of seizures in a pediatric population treated with atomoxetine or stimulant medications. Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety. 2013; 22: 386– 393. 23280590
  59. [76]Wiggs KK, Chang Z, Quinn PD, Hur K, Gibbons R, Dunn D, Brikell I, Larsson H, D’Onofrio BM. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder medication and seizures. Neurology. 2018; 90: e1104– e1110. 29476037 PMC5880635
  60. [77]Brikell I, Chen Q, Kuja-Halkola R, D’Onofrio BM, Wiggs KK, Lichtenstein P, Almqvist C, Quinn PD, Chang Z, Larsson H. Medication treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the risk of acute seizures in individuals with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2019; 60: 284– 293. 30682219 PMC6365170
  61. [78]Man KKC, Ip P, Chan EW, Law SL, Leung MTY, Ma EXY, Quek WT, Wong ICK. Effectiveness of Pharmacological Treatment for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on Physical Injuries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. CNS drugs. 2017; 31: 1043– 1055. 29255995
  62. [80]Mansournia MA, Etminan M, Danaei G, Kaufman JS, Collins G. Handling time varying confounding in observational research. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2017; 359: j4587. 29038130
  63. [81]Arnold BF, Ercumen A, Benjamin-Chung J, Colford JM Jr. Brief Report: Negative Controls to Detect Selection Bias and Measurement Bias in Epidemiologic Studies. Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass). 2016; 27: 637– 641. PMC4969055 27182642
  64. [83]Li X, Cole SR, Westreich D, Brookhart MA. Primary non-adherence and the new-user design. Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety. 2018; 27: 361– 364. 29460385 PMC6013420
  65. [86]Swanson JM, Arnold LE, Molina BSG, Sibley MH, Hechtman LT, Hinshaw SP, Abikoff HB, Stehli A, Owens EB, Mitchell JT, Nichols Q, Howard A, Greenhill LL, Hoza B, Newcorn JH, Jensen PS, Vitiello B, Wigal T, Epstein JN, Tamm L, Lakes KD, Waxmonsky J, Lerner M, Etcovitch J, Murray DW, Muenke M, Acosta MT, Arcos-Burgos M, Pelham WE, Kraemer HC, Group MTAC. Young adult outcomes in the follow-up of the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: symptom persistence, source discrepancy, and height suppression. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines. 2017; 58: 663– 678. PMC6168061 28295312
  66. [87]Sylvestre MP, Abrahamowicz M. Flexible modeling of the cumulative effects of time-dependent exposures on the hazard. Stat Med. 2009; 28: 3437– 3453. 19708037
  67. [88]Kantak KM, Dwoskin LP. Necessity for research directed at stimulant type and treatment-onset age to access the impact of medication on drug abuse vulnerability in teenagers with ADHD. Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior. 2016; 145: 24– 26. PMC4864167 27012495
  68. [90]Molina BS, Hinshaw SP, Eugene Arnold L, Swanson JM, Pelham WE, Hechtman L, Hoza B, Epstein JN, Wigal T, Abikoff HB, Greenhill LL, Jensen PS, Wells KC, Vitiello B, Gibbons RD, Howard A, Houck PR, Hur K, Lu B, Marcus S, Group MTAC. Adolescent substance use in the multimodal treatment study of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (MTA) as a function of childhood ADHD, random assignment to childhood treatments, and subsequent medication. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2013; 52: 250– 263. 23452682 PMC3589108
  69. [91]Mangoni AA, Jansen PA, Jackson SH. Under-representation of older adults in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies: a solvable problem? Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2013; 6: 35– 39. 23272791
  70. [92]Reeve E, Wiese MD, Mangoni AA. Alterations in drug disposition in older adults. Expert opinion on drug metabolism & toxicology. 2015; 11: 491– 508. 25600059
  71. [93]Alamo C, Lopez-Munoz F, Garcia-Garcia P, Garcia-Ramos S. Risk-benefit analysis of antidepressant drug treatment in the elderly. Psychogeriatrics. 2014; 14: 261– 268. 25495088
  72. [94]Sturman N, Deckx L, van Driel ML. Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 2017; 11: Cd011144. 29159857 PMC6486133
  73. [95]Torgersen T, Gjervan B, Lensing MB, Rasmussen K. Optimal management of ADHD in older adults. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment. 2016; 12: 79– 87. 26811680 PMC4712975
  74. [96]Cooper WO, Habel LA, Sox CM, Chan KA, Arbogast PG, Cheetham TC, Murray KT, Quinn VP, Stein CM, Callahan ST, Fireman BH, Fish FA, Kirshner HS, O’Duffy A, Connell FA, Ray WA. ADHD drugs and serious cardiovascular events in children and young adults. N Engl J Med. 2011; 365: 1896– 1904. 22043968 PMC4943074
  75. [98]Hennissen L, Bakker MJ, Banaschewski T, Carucci S, Coghill D, Danckaerts M, Dittmann RW, Hollis C, Kovshoff H, McCarthy S, Nagy P, Sonuga-Barke E, Wong IC, Zuddas A, Rosenthal E, Buitelaar JK, consortium A. Cardiovascular Effects of Stimulant and Non-Stimulant Medication for Children and Adolescents with ADHD: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Trials of Methylphenidate, Amphetamines and Atomoxetine. CNS drugs. 2017; 31: 199– 215. 28236285 PMC5336546
  76. [99]Dunn G, Emsley R, Liu H, Landau S. Integrating biomarker information within trials to evaluate treatment mechanisms and efficacy for personalised medicine. Clinical trials. 2013; 10: 709– 719. 24000376
  77. [101]Kendler KS, Neale MC. Endophenotype: a conceptual analysis. Molecular psychiatry. 2010; 15: 789– 797. 20142819 PMC2909487
  78. [102]Compton WM, Han B, Blanco C, Johnson K, Jones CM. Prevalence and Correlates of Prescription Stimulant Use, Misuse, Use Disorders, and Motivations for Misuse Among Adults in the United States. American Journal of Psychiatry. 2018; 175: 741– 755. 29656665 PMC6070393

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Chang, Z., Ghirardi, L., Quinn, P. D., Asherson, P., D’Onofrio, B. M., & Larsson, H.
Affiliations
  • Karolinska Institutet (SE)
  • Indiana University Bloomington (US)
  • King's College London (GB)
  • Örebro University (SE)
Corresponding author
Chang, Zheng
ORCID
Venue
Biological Psychiatry
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2019-09
Volume
86
Issue
5
Pages
335-343
ISSN
0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.009
PMC
PMC6697582
OpenAlex
W2936678544
Cited by
175
References
25
Citations by year
2026: 18 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 2
FWCI
2.90
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • IUScholarWorks Open (Indiana University) (submittedVersion)
  • Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • GW Pharmaceuticals
  • Medical Research Council (14/23/17)
  • HORIZON EUROPE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions (643051)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH102221, Horizon)
  • Shire
  • Eli Lilly and Company
  • National Health Research Institutes
  • Vetenskapsrådet (2013-2280, 2018-02213)
  • Horizon 2020 (2020)
  • European Commission
  • Novartis
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (R00DA040727)
  • National Institute for Health and Care Research (NF-SI-0616-10040)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Pharmaceutical studies and practices
Keywords
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, ADHD medication, behavioral effects, neuropsychiatric outcomes, pharmacoepidemiology, confounding by indication, time-varying confounding, injuries, motor vehicle accidents, substance use disorders, suicidality, seizures, criminality, depression, mania, psychosis, long-term drug effects
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Humans, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Databases, Factual, Pharmacoepidemiology, Risk Reduction Behavior

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review