Teacher implementation of Self-Regulated Strategy Development with an automated writing evaluation system: Effects on the argumentative writing performance of middle school students
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Automated essay scoring tools like MI Write can help students improve their writing motivation, writing self-efficacy, and writing skills.
“Several studies have demonstrated that automated essay scoring tools like MI Write can help students to improve their writing motivation (Wilson & Czik, 2016), writing self-efficacy (Wilson & Roscoe, 2020) and writing skills (Palermo & Thomson, 2018)”
From Assessment in the age of artificial intelligence (2022) · cites this paper as Palermo & Thomson, 2018
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Assessment in the age of artificial intelligence
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“…pedagogy (Cotos et al., 2017), Direct Assessment of Writing (DAW) universal screening (Wilson, 2018), Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) (Palermo & Thomson, 2018), three-stage feedback-revision (Tian & Zhou, 2020) were used alone or in combination in the reviewed studies as a basis for…”
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“The available research on L2 writing has been mainly devoted to the relationship between SRL writing strategies and writing performance (Palermo & Thomson, 2018), motivation (Teng & Zhang, 2016), and self-efficacy (Bai & Guo, 2018).”
BackgroundGuidance and Counselling in Education
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“The reason is related to the motivation behind their desire to pursue this and the incompatibility of the personality of the prospective counsellor with our demands (Kim, 2019; Palermo, 2018; Zilberman, 2018).”
BackgroundChen, A., Zhang, Y., Jia, J., Liang, M., Cha, Y., & Lim, C. P. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.13064 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
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“…’ intentional and goal-directed efforts in order to improve their language learning, including goal-setting, planning, text-generating, sentence-com-bining, self-monitoring, revising, and feedback-handling (e.g. Bai, Hu, & Gu, 2014; Limpo & Alves, 2013; Oxford, 2017; Palermo & Thomson, 2018).”
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“AWE has been deployed in primary, secondary, and higher education settings to help students improve their general essay-writing skills [27, 43, 51, 56].”
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“that include hygiene, eating and drinking, body care, and compassion (El-Seoud, 2019; Hajovsky, 2020; Palermo, 2018).”
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“As for teachers, they also have more opportunities to focus on the high-level aspects of writing, thus increasing their teaching efficiency [5,12,13].”
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“In response to an ongoing need for innovative assessment in language writing instruction, researchers and educators are increasingly turning to computer-based approaches, especially automated writing assessment (Palermo and Thomson, 2018; Woodworth & Barkaoui, 2020).”
BackgroundLanguage learning development in human-AI interaction: A thematic review of the research landscape
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“Recent research has shown teachers to be effective in implementing SRSD, leading to student achievement gains (Palermo & Thomson, 2018).”
Background“It takes two”: The added value of structured peer-assisted writing in explicit writing instruction
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“…(vocabulary, syntactic complexity, etc.) score reporting (Wilson et al., 2021), lengthy descriptions of modular and lesson organization and themes (Palermo & Thomson, 2018), and software graphic interface demonstrated through photos and screencaptures (Butterfuss et al., 2022; Roscoe et al.,…”
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“Teacher should pay attention to the students’ writing strategies and the types of writing instructions (Bai 2018; Palermo and Thomson 2018) The current advancement in the information and communication technology (ICT) or digital era has provided the learners with various tools with the form of…”
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“In addition, two studies used the same research data (i.e., Palermo, 2017; Palermo & Thomson, 2018).”
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“…their texts, the researchers have proposed taxonomies of writing strategies, including rhetorical, cognitive, metacognitive, communicative and socio-affective strategies (Arndt, 1987; Cumming & Riazi, 2000; Mu, 2005; Palermo & Thomson, 2018; Sasaki, 2000; Silva & Graham, 2015; Zamel, 1983).”
Integrating goal-setting and automated feedback to improve writing outcomes: a pilot study
Wilson, J., Potter, A. A., Cordero, T. M. C., & Myers, M. C. (2022) · Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.1080/17501229.2022.2077348 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Although research on AWE has largely focused on college students learning English as a foreign or second language (Stevenson and Phakiti 2014), fi ndings from research on AWE with adolescents in the US indicate that AWE is associated with increased writing self-e ffi cacy (Wilson and Roscoe 2020), writing motivation (Gri…”
BackgroundInfluentialPredictors of middle school students’ perceptions of automated writing evaluation
Wilson, J., Zhang, F., Palermo, C., Cordero, T. M. C., Myers, M. C., Eacker, H., Potter, A., & Coles, J. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104985 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Both elementary school teachers (Wilson, Ahrendt et al., 2021) and middle school teachers (Grimes & Warschauer, 2010; Palermo & Thomson, 2018; Wilson & Czik, 2016) indicate that AWE saves them time, makes writing instruction easier, and lets them focus their own feedback on higher-level concerns…”
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Shadiev, R., Feng, Y., Zhussupova, R. F., & Huang, Y. (2023) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12906 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Regatto-Bonifaz, J. D. P., Viteri-Miranda, V., & Moreta‐Herrera, R. (2023) · Ciencias Psicológicas · doi:10.22235/cp.v17i2.3254 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Exploring the effects of strategy-focused instruction in writing skills of 4TH grade students
Rodríguez-Málaga, L., Cueli, M., & Rodríguez, C. (2020) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-020-09247-3 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Lillo-Fuentes, F., René Venegas, V., & Lobos, I. (2023) · Perspectiva educacional · doi:10.4151/07189729-vol.62-iss.2-art.1420 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Horbach, A., Laarmann-Quante, R., Liebenow, L. W., Jansen, T., Keller, S., Meyer, J., Zesch, T., & Fleckenstein, J. (2022) · Linköping electronic conference proceedings · doi:10.3384/ecp190008 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…interventions were promising in general, the authors found that there were only few studies with randomized controlled experimental designs (see, e.g., Kellogg et al., 2010; Palermo and Thomson, 2018; Wade-Stein and Kintsch, 2004; Wilson and Roscoe, 2020; Wilson and Czik, 2016; Xu and Zhang, 2022).”
BackgroundThe early automated writing evaluation (eAWE) framework
McNamara, D. S., & Kendeou, P. (2022) · Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/0969594x.2022.2037509 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“AWE systems help students improve their writing quality (Franzke et al., 2005; Palermo & Thomson, 2018, 2019; Roscoe et al., 2018, 2014, 2013a; Roscoe & McNamara, 2013; Stevenson & Phakiti, 2014), their ability to effectively revise their writing (Knight et al., 2020; Roscoe et al., 2015, 2018;…”
BackgroundA Closer Look at Instructor Use and Sensemaking Processes of Analytics Dashboards
AlZoubi, D., & Baran, E. (2024) · Journal of Learning Analytics · doi:10.18608/jla.2024.7961 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Myers, M. C., & Wilson, J. (2022) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-022-00301-6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…efficiently (Huang & Wilson, 2021); and having positive effects on students’ motivation, self-efficacy, and writing proficiency (Graham et al., 2015; Palermo & Thomson, 2018; Stevenson & Phakiti, 2014; Wilson & Roscoe, 2020), though these effects may vary across grade level and genre (Wilson et…”
Sandra, R. P., Hwang, W., Zafirah, A., Hariyanti, U., Engkizar, E., Hadi, A., & Fauzan, A. (2024) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331241242437 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…skills, including writing argumentative texts based on diverse sources (Nelson, 2007), employing computer-supported online training (Luna et al., 2020), and utilizing a self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) model with the aid of an automatic writing evaluation system (Palermo & Thomson, 2018).”
Wang, S., & Li, R. (2019) · International Journal of Language and Linguistics · doi:10.11648/j.ijll.20190705.16 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Results suggested that incorporating AWE into writing instruction supported improvements in students’ writing quality [35].”
BackgroundFalardeau, É., Guay, F., Dubois, P., & Pelletier, D. (2024) · Journal of Writing Research · doi:10.17239/jowr-2024.16.01.01 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Palermo and Thomson (2018)’s teacher implementation study compared three conditions: 1) SRSD + feedback via an automated system, 2) BAU + feedback via an automated system and 3) BAU.”
BackgroundMethodDesign-Based of FBFRP-Technique in Writing Computerized English Essays in the Light of CTL Method
Turmudi, D. (2021) · Proceedings of the 2nd Borobudur International Symposium on Humanities and Social Sciences, BIS-HSS 2020, 18 November 2020, Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia · doi:10.4108/eai.18-11-2020.2311798 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“This study also provides initial evidence that, as part of a program of writing instruction, AWE is associated with increased writing quality compared to writing instruction alone [18, p. 266].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAvaliação Automática de Redação: Uma revisão sistemática
de Lima, T. B., da Silva, I. L. A., Freitas, E., & Mello, R. F. (2023) · Revista Brasileira de Informática na Educação · doi:10.5753/rbie.2023.2869 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cordero, T. M. C., Wilson, J., Myers, M. C., Palermo, C., Eacker, H., Potter, A. A., & Coles, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1196274 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Findings from prior research indicate that MI Write has promise for improving students’ writing ability (Palermo and Thomson, 2018; Palermo and Wilson, 2020), selfefficacy and motivation to write (Wilson and Czik, 2016; Wilson and Roscoe, 2020; Wilson et al.”
MethodSelf-citationYue, H., Wilson, J., & May, H. (2024) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-024-00443-9 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Finally, the present study explored a naturalistic implementation of AWE lacking usage expectations seen in previous AWE intervention research (e.g., Palermo & Thomson, 2018; Wilson & Roscoe, 2020).”
Students’ perceptions of automated writing evaluation in autonomous learning
Wang, X. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13378-y · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…& Fotoohnejad, 2021; Sari & Han, 2024); (c) its effectiveness in improving students’ writing performance (Wilson et al., 2014, 2021a; Wilson & Czik, 2016; Palermo & Thomson, 2018; Wilson & Roscoe, 2020; Chen & Pan, 2022; Ngo et al., 2022; Li, 2022; Ajabshir & Ebadi, 2023; Zou et al., 2023).”
Chen, Y., Terada, T., & Aguirre-Mendez, C. (2022) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-022-10363-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Yildiz, H., & Gönen, S. İ. K. (2024) · Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education · doi:10.17718/tojde.1169727 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Studies investigating the effectiveness of AWE in an instructional setting (Attali, 2004; Palermo & Thomson, 2018) found that students’ writing performances improved in terms of both form and content as a result of AWE implementation.”
Liu, S., Boudouaia, A., Chen, X., & Li, Y. (2024) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-024-00903-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Debates have continually emerged over the effects of AWE versus teacher feedback on the overall writing quality of K-12 students (Palermo & Thomson, 2018; Wilson et al., 2023).”
Middle school teachers’ implementation and perceptions of automated writing evaluation
Wilson, J., Delgado, A. M., Palermo, C., Cordero, T. M. C., Myers, M. C., Eacker, H., Potter, A. A., Coles, J., & Zhang, S. (2024) · Computers and Education Open · doi:10.1016/j.caeo.2024.100231 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The Gates Foundation selected MI Write for an efficacy trial because of prior research indicating MI Write ’ s promise for improving students ’ writing quality [42,30], students ’ writing motivation and self-efficacy for writing [29,43], and its widespread adoption in the U.S. (e.g., [42, 27,31]).”
Self-citationGeng, J., Razali, A. B., Ismail, L., & Noordin, N. B. (2024) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-023-09922-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Wilson, J., Cordero, T. M. C., Potter, A., Myers, M., MacArthur, C. A., Beard, G., Fudge, E. A., Raiche, A., & Ahrendt, C. (2024) · International Journal of Changes in Education · doi:10.47852/bonviewijce42024011 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cabanillas-García, J. L. (2025) · Informatics · doi:10.3390/informatics12030061 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rodríguez-Málaga, L., Rodríguez, C., & Redondo, R. F. (2020) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-020-10088-4 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Enhancing the English writing skills of in-service students using marking mate automated feedback
Huynh-Cam, T.-T., Agrawal, S., Bui, T.-T., Nalluri, V., & Chen, L. (2023) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-023-09904-7 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Although AWE is combined with instruction (Stevenson, 2016), AWE systems do not equally influence the writing performance of students (Palermo & Thomson, 2018; Huang & Wilson, 2021).”
Effects of a self-regulating writing course on academic text production in a PhD and Master sample
Camacho, L. R., & Martínez, C. H. (2021) · Tesis Psicológica · doi:10.37511/tesis.v16n1a1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Yue, H., & Wilson, J. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.70009 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Segaran, M. K., Engeness, I., & Gamlem, S. M. (2025) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2025.2539154 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Implementing a Metalinguistic Approach to Secondary School Writing
Telesca, L. (2023) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2023_lshss-22-00182 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Chimenti, M. D. L. Á., & Tonani, J. (2024) · Revista de Estudios y Experiencias en Educación · doi:10.21703/rexe.v23i51.1722 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kharisma, A., Hartati, T., Damaianti, V. S., Solehuddin, M., & Chandra, C. (2022) · Journal of Curriculum and Teaching · doi:10.5430/jct.v11n8p196 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Impact of Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE) on Middle School Students’ Writing Outcomes
Wilson, J., Palermo, C., Myers, M. C., Cordero, T. M. C., Eacker, H., Potter, A., Coles, J., May, H., & Zhang, F. (2025) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312251388655 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…AWE on Students’ Writing Outcomes essays were identified as a baseline for effective implementation due to positive outcomes in studies where this number was completed (Palermo & Thomson, 2018), whereas studies with only three essays showed null effects (Wilson & Czik, 2016; Wilson & Roscoe, 2020).”
InfluentialSelf-citationHart, N. V., & Power, M. E. (2021) · Preventing School Failure Alternative Education for Children and Youth · doi:10.1080/1045988x.2021.2016568 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…& Gavins, 2012; Baker et al., 2009; Ciullo & Mason, 2017; Cuenca-Carlino et al., 2018; De La Paz, 1999; Foxworth et al., 2017; Monroe & Troia, 2006; Palermo & Thomson, 2018), including those with autism spectrum disorders (Asaro-Saddler et al., 2021; Asaro-Saddler & Saddler, 2010; Delano,…”
BackgroundInfluentialRay, A. B., & Mason, T. (2024) · Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs · doi:10.1111/1471-3802.12681 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Automated Essay Feedback Generation in the Learning of Writing: A Review of the Field
Lagakis, P., & Demetriadis, S. (2022) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-96296-8_40 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Cai, B., He, Z., Fu, H. C., Zheng, Y., & Song, Y. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2025.3547321 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Other enhancements include improved analytical scores [28], increased revisions [30], [31], developed writing content or length [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], elevated writing performance [36], enhanced writing competence [37], and more positive writing self-efficacy [38].”
Qi, Q. (2022) · Mobile Information Systems · doi:10.1155/2022/1950877 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Finkelstein, I., & Soffer-Vital, S. (2025) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803611.2025.2596373 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…to students since such AI tools that provide automatic scoring enhance student intrinsic motivation (MartínNúñez et al., 2023) and especially his motivation to write (Wilson & Czik, 2016), self-efficacy (Wilson & Roscoe, 2020), and skills (Palermo & Thomson, 2018), All of which are goals of FA.”
Scherer, S., Graham, S., & Busse, V. (2026) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2026.101034 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Assessing the reliability and validity of large language models in automatic essay scoring
Crossley, S. A., Holmes, L., & Morris, W. (2026) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2026.101082 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Source integration in source-based writing: From theoretical modeling to predictive analytics
Potter, A., Tian, Y., Balyan, R., Goldshtein, M., Allen, L. K., & McNamara, D. S. (2026) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2026.101081 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Nunes, A., Cordeiro, C., Rocha, R. S., Limpo, T., & Castro, S. L. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1305771 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Psychological Features of Pedagogical Interaction in the “Teacher-Student” System
Hreilikh, O. O., & Vydolob, N. O. (2021) · Scientific Bulletin of Mukachevo State University Series “Pedagogy and Psychology” · doi:10.52534/msu-pp.7(3).2021.78-86 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Online PBPD and Coaching for Teaching SRSD Argumentative Writing in Middle School Classrooms
Ray, A. B., Mason, T., Connor, K. E., & Williams, C. S. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14060603 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Writing quality from different latent profiles of revision subprocesses in upper-primary students
Gundín, O. A., Rodríguez, C., Núñez, J. C., Rijlaarsdam, G., & López, P. (2025) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2025.102353 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Yun, B., Moe, M., Flynn, L. E., Öncel, P., & Allen, L. K. (2026) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2026.101098 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Learner-guided Lesson Study? A New Perspective in EFL Argumentative Writing Development
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“The last is Palermo and Thomson [18], who state that SRSD positively impacts students writing argumentative essays.”
BackgroundBibliometrically and systematically analyzing automated writing evaluation for English learning
Wu, T., & Yu, Z. (2023) · Forum for Linguistic Studies · doi:10.59400/fls.v5i3.1907 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In general, incorporating AWE into a program of writing instruction was beneficial to students’ writing quality development (Palermo and Thomson, 2018).”
BackgroundeRevise: Automated Formative Feedback System to Improve Students' Use of Text Evidence in Writing
Wang, E. L. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1441223
Sun, J., Motevalli, S., Chan, N. N., & Bailey, R. P. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4641381
Automated Writing Evaluation for Second Language Placement TestingPreprint
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Valenzuela, M. C. S., Enríquez, M. D. C. Z., Leal, A. C. D., & Borunda-Zueck, E. (2024) · Revista de Ciencias del Ejercicio FOD · doi:10.29105/rce-fod.v19i2.115
Faradila, A. N., & Daryono, R. W. (2024) · Jurnal Pendidikan (Teori dan Praktik) · doi:10.26740/jp.v9n2.p120-135
Improving story writing skills of students with intellectual disabilities: POW+C-SPACE
Açıkgöz, M. H., Özer, E., & Öğülmüş, K. (2025) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2025.2456980
Pratama, M. S. K., Rahman, A., Widiati, B., & Monteoro, C. B. (2025) · Journal of Language and Literature Studies · doi:10.36312/jolls.v5i2.2820
Does transcription instruction make writing intervention more effective? A meta-analysis
Guo, Y., Mercer, S. H., & Squires, B. (2025) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2025.101502
EvaluAId: Human-AI Collaborative Evaluation of Open-Ended Student Essays
Zhang, C., Ju, K. P., Lu, X., Yen, Y.-C. G., & Rzeszotarski, J. M. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3790814
“Such systems are widely used in universities and large-scale standardized assessments (e.g., GRE, TOEFL) [5, 24, 61, 73, 84].”
From words to components: Mapping linguistic features in source-based writing
Potter, A. A., Crossley, S. A., Öncel, P., Allen, L. K., Xu, X., Balyan, R., Arner, T., Roscoe, R. D., & McNamara, D. S. (2026) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2026.101108
- Authors
- Palermo, C., & Thomson, M. M.
- Affiliations
- North Carolina State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Palermo, Corey
- Venue
- Contemporary Educational Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-07
- Volume
- 54
- Pages
- 255-270
- ISSN
- 0361-476X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2856745662
- Cited by
- 107
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5
- FWCI
- 20.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Contemporary Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Writing and Handwriting Education
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Keywords
- self-regulated strategy development, automated writing evaluation, argumentative writing, writing instruction, junior high school students, writing quality, teacher implementation, low-intensity intervention, social validity
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