Temporal dynamics in the relation between presence and fear in virtual reality
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It remains unclear why presence and anxiety are related.
“Although significant correlations between presence and anxiety have been reported, it remains unclear why they are related [62].”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [62]
High immersion and high presence seemed to be important during initial VRET sessions.
“High immersion and high presence also seemed to be important during initial VRET sessions.”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [62]
Stereoscopy compared to monoscopy had a relevant role in fearful participants.
“This study also showed a relevant role of stereoscopy compared to monoscopy, in fearful participants.”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [62]
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“…pre-reflective bodily self-consciousness consists in “experiencing one’s body as the point of convergence of perception and action” (Legrand, 2006, p. 108) and thus conceiving the bodily self as “an integrated system characterized by matching of sensorymotor information” (Legrand, 2006, p. 111).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCausal interactive links between presence and fear in virtual reality height exposure
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“Presence in a virtual world may turn on emotions in the real world [32].”
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“[9] compared the fear emotions that were generated by spider images in 3D and 2D display modes and found that higher levels of subjective fear were evoked by 3D displays but that were no physiological differences in skin conductance level (SCL) of stereoscopy vs.”
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“This measure has prior application in VR environments in the context of anxiety and therapy treatment [17, 20, 75, 76], emotional replication studies [21], behavioural studies [24], and presence [16,45,46,51].”
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“…recording procedure, along with the data compiled, can serve as key components to the diagnosis and elucidation of the severity of each disorder, as well as to the identification of the clients’ reactions and overall progress (Peperkorn et al., 2015; Diemer et al., 2016; Yeh et al., 2018).”
MethodGamification and Hazard Communication in Virtual Reality: A Qualitative Study
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Realism and Field of View Affect Presence in VR but Not the Way You Think
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“It has even been suggested that fear and presence may be mutually dependent in some VEs [71].”
BackgroundWhy we Should Rethink Our Approach to Embodiment and Presence
Forster, P.-P., Karimpur, H., & Fiehler, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.838369 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“…physiological measures to be in accordance with sensations described in the administered questionnaire (Slater et al., 2010b; Yu et al., 2012; Preuss and Ehrsson, 2019), but others fail to fi nd such a relationship (e.g., Peperkorn et al., 2015; Kokkinara et al., 2016; Eftekharifar et al., 2020).”
BackgroundVirtual fashion experiences in virtual reality fashion show spaces
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Immersive virtual environments and embodied agents for e-learning applications
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“The results indicated similarly high levels of immersion in all three IVEs,427 meaning that the IVEs are comparable to non-virtual learning (Peperkorn et al., 2015; Shin, 2018) and428 ensuring that environment quality was unlikely to produce any differences in learning outcomes.429 Future…”
ResultMcCall, C., Hildebrandt, L. K., Hartmann, R., Bączkowski, B. M., & Singer, T. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.028 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
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BackgroundPeperkorn, H. M., Diemer, J., Alpers, G. W., & Mühlberger, A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00268 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Keywords: virtual reality, presence, immersion, perception, fear, specific phobia Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 February 2016 | Volume 7 | Article 268”
BackgroundSelf-citationDevelopment of a Virtual Ecological Environment for Learning the Taipei Tree Frog
Ou, K.-L., Liu, Y., & Tarng, W. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13115911 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“[41] presented large spiders in a VR environment where presence seemed to be a direct influence, and they appeared to be mutually dependent.”
BackgroundHuman movement characteristics during emergency evacuations in a virtual environment
Zhiming, F., Huisheng, G., Lixue, J., Li, X., & Lv, W. (2020) · Fire Safety Journal · doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2020.103147 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
An Immersive Self-Report Tool for the Affective Appraisal of 360° VR Videos
Toet, A., Heijn, F., Brouwer, A.-M., Mioch, T., & van Erp, J. B. F. (2020) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2020.552587 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“While stereoscopic viewing may elicit stronger emotions (Peperkorn et al., 2015), this finding is not unequivocal (Baños et al., 2008; Ling et al., 2012) and probably depends on the VR contents and scenario.”
BackgroundDie Entwicklung virtueller Realität als Expositionsverfahren
Diemer, J., & Zwanzger, P. (2019) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s00115-019-0678-6 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
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“environment and avatars and telepresence were rated between 17 and 47/100 and, thus, comparable to the results of some other studies [81,82], but lower than observed in other studies [79,80,83–85].”
ResultJansen, P., Snijders, C. C. P., & Willemsen, M. C. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0229197 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“[11] or the increase of aggressive feelings in the case of playing a violent videogame [9].”
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Arnfred, B. T., Svendsen, J. K., Adjorlu, A., & Horthøj, C. (2023) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2023.952741 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Even so, presence has been consistently found to be correlated to anxiety in virtual environments (Bouchard et al., 2008; Gorini et al., 2011; Ling et al., 2014; Peperkorn et al., 2015; Peperkorn et al., 2016) and is thus still considered an important aspect of VRET (Diemer et al.”
BackgroundScheveneels, S., Engelhard, I. M., & Meyerbröker, K. (2024) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026241267945 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Although realism may heighten presence and anxiety, findings are inconsistent, and the relationship between presence and anxiety seems bidirectional and time dependent (Diemer, Alpers, Peperkorn, Shiban, & Mühlberger, 2015; Peperkorn et al., 2015).”
Chard, I., Zalk, N. V., & Picinali, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2023.1159549 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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The underwood project: A virtual environment for eliciting ambiguous threat
McCall, C., Schofield, G. P., Halgarth, D., Blyth, G., Laycock, A., & Palombo, D. J. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-022-02002-3 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…that emotionally evocative (e.g., fearful, exciting) virtual environments (both desktop and immersive) have much to offer research on human affect (Alvarez et al., 2011; Baas et al., 2004; McCall et al., 2016; Peperkorn et al., 2015; Vermehren & Carpenter, 2020) for a variety of reasons.”
BackgroundRetroSketch: A Retrospective Method for Measuring Emotions and Presence in Virtual Reality
Potts, D., Gada, M., Gupta, A., Goel, K., Krzok, K. P., Pate, G., Hartley, J. P., Weston-Arnold, M., Aylott, J., Clarke, C., et al. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713957 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Presence and emotions are associated [24, 62, 187, 215], for example, presence has been shown to correlate with emotion intensity [10, 47, 225] as well as with negative valence emotions such as fear [62, 80, 99, 101, 140, 164, 239].”
Harnessing Virtual Reality Nature to Promote Well-Being
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Diemer, J., Kothgassner, O. D., Herrmann, M. J., & Zwanzger, P. (2023) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s00115-023-01570-9 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationPanicRoom: a virtual reality-based Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigm
Lucifora, C., Aldo Gangemi, A., D'Italia, G., Culicetto, L., Ferraioli, F., Grasso, G. M., & Vicario, C. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1432141 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Wu, C. (2023) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202307.1408.v1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Francia, C., Donno, L., Covarrubias, M., Cascini, G., Tarabini, M., & Galli, M. (2025) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s25144400 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Compared to previous studies that investigated physiological responses in VR-based training or anxiety simulations [21,36], this study uniquely focuses on the integration of postural and physiological data in response to sudden hazardous events.”
Duong, C., Sung, B., Barber, M., Regolini, E., & Teah, M. (2022) · Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science · doi:10.1080/21639159.2022.2033131 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Results suggest that immersive virtual reality environments can evoke emotional responses (e.g. Chirico et al., 2018; Peperkorn et al., 2015), attitudinal responses (e.g. Van Kerrebroeck et al., 2017), affective responses (e.g. Srinivasan & Srivastava, 2010; Verhagen et al., 2014), similarly to…”
BackgroundDumeva, P., Ma, Y., Marakas, G. M., & Aguirre-Urreta, M. I. (2024) · AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.17705/1thci.00214 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A Qualitative Examination of Precautionary Measures in a Virtual Reality Fear Environment
Rader, N. E., Heath, C., May, D. C., Gaddy, C., Hudson, C. R., & Carruth, D. W. (2024) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-024-09770-y · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Immersive presence within VR can initially heighten fear responses, with presence and fear becoming interdependent over time (Peperkorn et al., 2015).”
Kosonogov, V., Efimov, K., Rakhmankulova, Z., & Zyabreva, I. (2023) · Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology · doi:10.1007/s11055-023-01393-w · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Inducing Emotional Response in Interactive Media: A Pilot Study
Reimer, K. M., & Khosmood, F. (2016) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-41769-1_10 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“This is relevant because other work has shown that the degree to which a user is feeling present in a virtual environment can have an effect on the magnitude to which they experience fear [10].”
BackgroundHoll, E. A., Huber, K., Pietschmann, D., & Liebold, B. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100637 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kriklenko, E. А., Kovaleva, A. V., Клименко, А. В., Ризванович, Д. У., & Pertsov, S. S. (2022) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2022/5346128 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Despite the fact that skin electrical activity is traditionally considered to be a reliable indicator of the sympathetic nervous system’s response to affective stimuli, some works have shown that skin conductivity under virtual reality conditions does not differ significantly from the baseline values [41].”
BackgroundDiemer, J., Sich, M., Lange, B., Müller, M., Koller, M., Schäfer, P., Meixner, G., Brunnauer, A., & Zwanzger, P. (2025) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2025.1536968 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationKeller, J. K., Kusari, A., Czok, S., Simgen, B., Steinicke, F., & Diekhof, E. K. (2024) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr58804.2024.00076 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…but also in other studies, presence (i.e., the subjective experience, not the degree of technological immersion) has been observed to correlate with emotional responses, mainly fear and anxiety ( [1,43,45,47,48]; for review we refer to [13]), but also happiness, sadness, and relaxation [47].”
BackgroundResultPhysiological Measures in Game User Research
Akan, E., & Berkman, M. İ. (2020) · International series on computer entertainment and media technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-37643-7_10 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Tao, Z., Sun, Q., Wang, X., Yang, Z., Wu, S., Zhao, Y., & Lei, B. (2025) · Computers & Graphics · doi:10.1016/j.cag.2025.104470 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
At Home AND Together? Virtual Event Twins und Virtual Event Substitutes als Coronabuster
Bär, S. (2022) · Markenkommunikation und Beziehungsmarketing · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-35165-6_6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Aggarwal, A., Amrutha, K., & Smera, C. (2025) · International Conference on Mobile Networks and Wireless Communications (ICMNWC) · doi:10.1109/icmnwc66779.2025.11354292 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“C. Psychological Mechanisms: Presence and Gamification 1) Presence Theory: Presence theory suggests that the feeling of “being there” in a virtual or augmented environment is essential for effective emotional processing [7] [8] [27].”
Roßkopf, S., Mühlberger, A., Stärz, F., Blau, M., van de Par, S., & Kroczek, L. O. H. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0345565 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“It is not only stated that presence is the basis on which a VR scene results in “real” emotions [28], but also the other way round was found.”
Self-citationSelf-imagery and advertising effectiveness: the role of sense of presence
Jang, W., Lee, S. Y., & Asada, A. (2021) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2021.1978920 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
When Fear Overshadows Perceived Plausibility: The Influence of Incongruencies on Acrophobia in VR
Brübach, L., Celikhan, D., Rüffert, L., Westermeier, F., Latoschik, M. E., & Wienrich, C. (2025) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr59515.2025.00089 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Peperkorn et al. [23] tested a stereoscopic (high immersion/presence) against a monoscopic (low immersion/presence) setting of a powerwall.”
InfluentialINDUÇÃO DE HUMOR POR REALIDADE VIRTUAL
BERNARDO, P. D. (2019) · doi:10.17771/pucrio.acad.46847 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Inducing Emotional Response in Interactive Media
Reimer, K. M. (2016) · doi:10.15368/theses.2016.121
Virtuelle Welten für die psychiatrische Anwendung
Schroeder, P. A., Mühlberger, A., & Plewnia, C. (2015) · NeuroTransmitter · doi:10.1007/s15016-015-0695-z
Self-citationNew information technologies in social studies: postnonclassical paradigm
Menshikova, G. Y., Zinchenko, Y. P., Kovalev, A. I., & Shaygerova, L. A. (2015) · National Psychological Journal · doi:10.11621/npj.2015.0303
Analysis of possibility of virtual reality usage for investigating reaction on given conditions
Łukasiak, M., Machul, K., & Maj, M. (2019) · Journal of Computer Sciences Institute · doi:10.35784/jcsi.435
Bender, S. M., & Broderick, M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82547-8_1
Gegieckaitė, G., Zamalijeva, O., Petraškaitė, K., Nagevice, E., Lindner, P., Carlbring, P., Daele, T. V., Andersson, G., & Eimontas, J. (2025) · doi:10.2196/preprints.89612
Gegieckaitė, G., Zamalijeva, O., Petraškaitė, K., Nagevice, E., Lindner, P., Carlbring, P., Daele, T. V., Andersson, G., & Eimontas, J. (2025) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/89612 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“It has been suggested that a sense of presence in a VR environment is necessary for exposure success, as virtual stimuli need to be perceived as real enough to activate the fear system [35].”
Krumnikl, M., Němec, M., Vilímková, A., Huser, F., & Jaremová, V. (2026) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2026.1916925
- Authors
- Peperkorn, H. M., Diemer, J., & Mühlberger, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Würzburg (DE)
- University of Regensburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Mühlberger, Andreas
- Venue
- Computers in Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-07
- Volume
- 48
- Pages
- 542-547
- ISSN
- 0747-5632 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2046358208
- Semantic Scholar
- 45f91939c5e53f86af078e1d55d5486defaef541
- Cited by
- 82
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 8.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Computers in Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Keywords
- virtual reality exposure therapy, presence, fear, temporal dynamics, spider phobia, stereoscopic display, specific phobia, fear conditioning
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