Does ChatGPT have semantic understanding? A problem with the statistics-of-occurrence strategy
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XAI does not address the core limitation: LLMs depend on statistical patterns, not genuine reasoning or evidence evaluation.
“However, XAI does not address the core limitation: LLMs depend on statistical patterns, not genuine reasoning or evidence evaluation (23).”
From Why we need to be careful with LLMs in medicine (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
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Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0005
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0008
Trust, Pistology, and the Ethics of Cooperation
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0004
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0002
Trust, Vulnerability, and Monitoring
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0007
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0003
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0006
Conclusions and a Research Agenda
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0010
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.003.0001
Carter, J. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780191982460.002.0005
Hu, H., & Kerschberg, L. (2024) · doi:10.2196/preprints.63297
Mayrhofer‐Hufnagl, I. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik · doi:10.1007/s41244-025-00415-z
Izbrani vidiki uporabe umetne inteligence v sodnih postopkih
Rožmarin, M. M., & Baghrizabehi, D. (2025) · doi:10.18690/um.pf.11.2025.7
Identity and Fairness: How Users Accept AI Moderators in Online Communities
Kim, O., & Noh, G. Y. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2605184
A Social Robot Supporting Artistic Activities with Older Adults: A Pilot Study
Carrasco-Martínez, S., Gómez, M. M., Alonso-Martín, F., Castro‐González, Á., & Salichs, M. Á. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-2382-5_54
Investigating linguistic errors in large language model generation of uzbek text
Solidjonov, D., & Najmiddinov, M. (2025) · Cogent Arts and Humanities · doi:10.1080/23311983.2025.2600519 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Türkçede Dil Bilimsel Bağlamın Önemi (ChatGpt 3.5 İle Güncel Türkçe Sözlük Karşılaştırması)
SELVİ, C. (2025) · International Journal of Filologia · doi:10.51540/ijof.1812039
ChatGPT Rewriting Function—the Margins of Vocabulary and Grammar Structures
Vâlcea, C. S. (2026) · Postdisciplinary studies in discourse · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-07761-5_4
Zhang, L., Liu, Z., Zhao, S., & Jingxin, W. (2026) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/1467-9817.70033
Akhmetkazy, B., Zhantaeva, M., Khalizhan, K., Kurmanbayev, Y., & Khaydarov, N. (2026) · Al-Qarawiyyin Jurnal Ilmu Ushuluddin · doi:10.64691/21y5h822 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
GenAI and Authorship in Academia: The (Im)Possible Creator. An Integrative Review
Vassileva, I. G., & Chankova, M. (2026) · Discourses on Culture · doi:10.2478/doc-2026-0004
Assisting or resisting patriarchy? a critical discourse analysis of chatgpt’s responses on feminism
Biswas, A., Sulzer, M. A., & Hasan, M. (2026) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-026-01220-1
De la translation computationnelle à la transduction : monstration ekphrastique et individuation
Colas-Blaise, M. (2026) · Signata · doi:10.4000/16qm7
What Could Students Learn About Large Language Models in L1 Education?
Stevens, E., Bluijs, S., van Rijt, J., & Bax, S. (2026) · Postdigital Science and Education · doi:10.1007/s42438-026-00717-6
- Authors
- Titus, L. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Denver (US)
- Corresponding author
- Titus, Lisa Miracchi
- ORCID
- Titus, Lisa Miracchi
- Venue
- Cognitive Systems Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2024-01
- Volume
- 83
- Pages
- 101174
- ISSN
- 1389-0417 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4386898865
- Cited by
- 82
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 1
- FWCI
- 21.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Cognitive Systems Research (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Endowment for the Humanities (FEL-282501-22)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Syntax, Semantics, Linguistic Variation
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Cybernetics and Technology in Society
- Keywords
- ChatGPT, semantic understanding, word meaning, word embeddings, Word2Vec, BERT, GPT-3, statistical hypothesis, causal explanation, word co-occurrence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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