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Social Baseline Theory: the social regulation of risk and effort
Open accessAbstract
We describe Social Baseline Theory (SBT), a perspective that integrates the study of social relationships with principles of attachment, behavioral ecology, cognitive neuroscience, and perception science. SBT suggests the human brain expects access to social relationships that mitigate risk and diminish the level of effort needed to meet a variety of goals. This is accomplished in part by incorporating relational partners into neural representations of the self. By contrast, decreased access to relational partners increases cognitive and physiological effort. Relationship disruptions entail re-defining the self as independent, which implies greater risk, increased effort, and diminished well being. The ungrafting of the self and other may mediate recovery from relationship loss.
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“This theory, which has bases on behavioral ecology and cognitive neuroscience, suggests that the human brain expects access to social relationships that mitigate risk and diminish the level of effort needed to meet a variety of goals (7).”
From Physiological attunement and flourishing: understanding the influence of relationships on health (2025) · cites this paper as [7]
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Items 101–200 of 312
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Davis, A., Crittenden, B. M., & Cohen, E. E. A. (2021) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113490 · Cited by 21
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The Routledge International Handbook of Psychobiology
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IJzerman, H., Heine, E. C. E., Nagel, S. K., & Pronk, T. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00635 · Cited by 17
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“…role of attachment has theoretical support in different theories such as Social Baseline Theory (SBT) or Wilma Bucci’s Multiple Code Theory [62–64] that supports how traumatic experiences may provoke a disconnection within different level of information elaboration with negative consequences…”
BackgroundMeyer (2020) · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104834 · Cited by 18
Opioid Regulation of Social Homeostasis: Connecting Loneliness to Addiction
Løseth, G. E., Eikemo, M., & Leknes, S. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.11.011 · Cited by 16
“The quality of social relationships appears to calibrate social reward and threat sensitivity (36,37) and to form a central part of the bioenergetic resources that people count on to cope with challenges (34).”
Adolescent peer struggles predict accelerated epigenetic aging in midlife
Allen, J. P., Danoff, J. S., Costello, M. A., Loeb, E. L., Davis, A. A., Hunt, G. L., Gregory, S. G., Giamberardino, S. N., & Connelly, J. J. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422000153 · Cited by 15
“Hence in accord with social baseline theory, it may be the perceived absence of membership in a group of supportive others that is most threatening (Coan & Sbarra, 2015).”
BackgroundReimagining Education: The International Science and Evidence Based Education (ISEE) Assessment
Duraiappah, A. K., van Atteveldt, N., Buil, J. M., Singh, K., & Wu, R. (2022) · doi:10.56383/jofk3902 · Cited by 15
Rethinking the Theoretical Foundation of Economics I: The Multilevel Paradigm
Wilson, D. S., & Snower, D. J. (2024) · Economics · doi:10.1515/econ-2022-0070 · Cited by 21
Riem, M. M. E., Kunst, L. E., & Kop, W. J. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.057 · Cited by 16
Dyadic Coping as Relationship Maintenance
Randall, A. K., & Messerschmitt-Coen, S. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108304320.010 · Cited by 14
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“Specifically, the results of the present study indicate that beneficial emotion regulation occurs not only because clients share their emotions with their therapists (as has been predicted, for example, by the social baseline theory [38]) but also because they synchronize their arousal levels with those of their thera…”
ResultUnveiling underlying systemic isolation challenges for AAC users
Blasko, G. (2025) · Augmentative and Alternative Communication · doi:10.1080/07434618.2025.2515279 · Cited by 12
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The Role of Social Support in Promoting Self-Development
Jakubiak, B. K., & Tomlinson, J. M. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-43747-3_8 · Cited by 12
The Gift that Keeps on Giving: Generosity is Contagious in Multiplayer Online Games
Bisberg, A. J., Jiang, J., Zeng, Y., Chen, E., & Ferrara, E. (2022) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3555120 · Cited by 14
“From time to time, however, we may also seek companionship simply for our mental and emotional well-being [9].”
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Harris, S. J., Papathanassoglou, E. D. E., Gee, M., Hampshaw, S. M., Lindgren, L., & Haywood, A. (2018) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.200 · Cited by 12
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A perspective-based analysis of attachment from prenatal period to second year postnatal life
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BackgroundUnshared Minds, Decaying Worlds: Towards a Pathology of Chronic Loneliness
Corbin, I. M., & Dhand, A. (2024) · The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine · doi:10.1093/jmp/jhae020 · Cited by 12
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Human Relationships and Healthy Aging
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Socioemotional Development in the Digital Age
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“…humor may typically foster a sense of support and amiability, satisfying followers’ desires for psychological safety (Cooper et al., 2018; Yam et al., 2018), which leads to a higher inclination for authentic self-expression, rather than abiding by self-regulatory mechanisms (Coan & Sbarra, 2015).”
Taking stock to move forward: Where the field of developmental psychopathology might be heading
Fonagy, P., Luyten, P., Allison, E., & Campbell, C. (2024) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579424000312 · Cited by 9
Loneliness and Social Connection in the Mental Health Crisis
Holt‐Lunstad, J., & Sine, K. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.10.019 · Cited by 10
What Is Social Connection in the Context of Human Need: An Interdisciplinary Literature Review
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The Role of Parent Self-Regulation in Youth Type 1 Diabetes Management
Bauer, K. W., Hilliard, M. E., Albright, D. K., Lo, S. L., Fredericks, E. M., & Miller, A. L. (2020) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-020-01321-z · Cited by 13
A Theory of Social Thermoregulation in Human PrimatesPreprint
IJzerman, H., Coan, J. A., Wagemans, F. M. A., Missler, M. A., van Beest, I., & Lindenberg, S. M. (2017) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/bh4vq · Cited by 12
Self-citationSeparation, social isolation, and loss in the context of COVID-19 and beyond
Karantzas, G. C., & Simpson, J. A. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101400 · Cited by 10
“Drawing on social baseline theory [5], Beckes and Sbarra integrate Bayesian and ecological perspectives to provide new insights into how social proximity and physical touch can facilitate the regulation of emotions, which in turn may affect people’s physical health and wellbeing.”
Horn, A. B., Holzgang, S. A., & Rosenberger, V. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.654255 · Cited by 13
“Relationships are an important resource in life (Coan and Sbarra, 2015; Kiecolt-Glaser and Wilson, 2017).”
BackgroundMotivation and Pleasure Deficits Undermine the Benefits of Social Affiliation in Psychosis
Blanchard, J. J., Smith, J. F., Bennett, M. E., Orth, R. D., Savage, C. L. G., McCarthy, J. M., Coan, J. A., & Shackman, A. J. (2024) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026241227886 · Cited by 9
“…underlying this “neuroregulatory” effect are distinct from those responsive to primary and secondary rewards, including food, money, and addictive substances (Coan et al., 2006, 2017; Coan & Sbarra, 2015; Eisenberger, 2013; Eisenberger et al., 2007; Morawetz et al., 2021; Morriss et al., 2019).”
InfluentialSelf-citationCompassion in a heartbeat: Physiology during couples’ loss discussions
Corner, G. W., Saxbe, D., Chaspari, T., Rasmussen, H. F., Perrone, L., Pettit, C., Friendly, M., Timmons, A. C., & Margolin, G. (2018) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407518770267 · Cited by 11
Reward circuitry activation reflects social preferences in the face of cognitive effort
Sullivan‐Toole, H., Dobryakova, E., DePasque, S., & Tricomi, E. M. (2018) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.06.011 · Cited by 10
“Social Baseline Theory posits that social relationships allow for the distribution of effort costs among social partners and thus reduce individual effort expenditure (Coan and Sbarra, 2015).”
Early Environments Shape Neuropeptide Function: The Case of Oxytocin and Vasopressin
Perry‐Paldi, A., Hirschberger, G., Feldman, R., Zagoory‐Sharon, O., Bazak, S. B., & Ein‐Dor, T. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00581 · Cited by 9
“Maintaining vigilance is costly and organisms are motivated to regulate vigilant behaviors and activate these behaviors only when necessary (Coan and Sbarra, 2015).”
BackgroundCouples Adjusting to Multimorbidity: A Dyadic Study on Disclosure and Adjustment Disorder Symptoms
Horn, A. B., Boettcher, V. S., Holzer, B. M., Siebenhuener, K., Maercker, A. R. A., Battegay, E. J., & Zimmerli, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02499 · Cited by 11
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Pathways from adolescent close friendship struggles to adult negative affectivity
Allen, J. P., Costello, M. A., Hellwig, A. F., & Stern, J. A. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579423001542 · Cited by 8
“Accordingly, social baseline theory suggests that the human brain is tuned to a default position of expecting to be in the presence of others who can act as potential supports in times of threat or stress (Coan & Sbarra, 2015).”
BackgroundExplicating a comprehensive model of post-dissolution distress
Dailey, R. M., Zhong, L., Varga, S., Zhang, Z., & Kearns, K. (2023) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075231207588 · Cited by 8
“Greater interdependence makes the process of dissolution and becoming independent more complex and dif fi cult (see also Coan & Sbarra, 2015).”
BackgroundWhat predicts the initiation and outcomes of interpersonal emotion regulation in everyday life?
Thompson, R. J., Liu, D. Y., & Lai, J. (2024) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-024-10089-8 · Cited by 10
“…focused on IER, given the importance of social relationships, the human tendency to seek and interact with others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Coan & Sbarra, 2015; Kappas, 2013), and that emotion regulation often occurs in social contexts (Dixon-Gordon et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2021; Tran et…”
Loneliness in schizophrenia: Just loneliness
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Social interaction, psychotic disorders and inflammation: A triangle of interest
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Exploring Physiological Linkage in Same-Sex Male Couples
Li, X., Kuelz, A., Boyd, S. M., August, K. J., Markey, C. N., & Butler, E. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.619255 · Cited by 7
Mother's engagement with infant linked to infant's responding to threat
Thrasher, C., Krol, K. M., & Großmann, T. (2021) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22224 · Cited by 8
Partner’s Perceived Social Support Influences Their Spouse’s Inflammation: An Actor–Partner Analysis
Landvatter, J., Uchino, B. N., Smith, T. W., & Bosch, J. A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19020799 · Cited by 8
“Given that the partner has adequate support, they would have the resources needed to attend to their partner’s socio-emotional needs [31,32].”
BackgroundSupporting autistic flourishing
Jaswal, V. K., & Akhtar, N. (2019) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x19000025 · Cited by 7
Vine, V., Hilt, L. M., Marroquín, B. M., & Gilbert, K. (2019) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13461 · Cited by 8
Horn, A. B., Zimmerli, L., Maercker, A. R. A., & Holzer, B. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1213927 · Cited by 9
“Social Baseline Theory suggests that not being alone is a cue for a more predictable and controllable environment and invites a person to save their own resources by relying on the other (Coan and Sbarra, 2015).”
BackgroundYielding to social presence as a bioenergetic strategy: Preliminary evidence using fMRI
Gonzalez, M. Z., Coppola, A. M., Allen, J. P., & Coan, J. A. (2021) · Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cresp.2021.100010 · Cited by 7
Self-citationPTSD Symptom Cluster Severity Predicts Momentary Emotion Dynamics During Couple Conversations
Fredman, S. J., Fischer, M. S., Baucom, D. H., Le, Y., Taverna, E. C., Chow, S., Ram, N., & Marshall, A. D. (2022) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2022.09.004 · Cited by 8
Derbyshire, K., Thai, S., Midgley, C., & Lockwood, P. (2023) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075231162599 · Cited by 10
“To the extent that this network is available, individuals will be less reactive to threats, because the risks associated with that threat are shared, and the burden or “ load ” of responding is spread across the larger social landscape (Coan & Maresh, 2014; Coan & Sbarra, 2015).”
Physiological attunement and flourishing: understanding the influence of relationships on health
Bastos, M. A. V., Braz, D. F., Porto, A. L. M., Cordeiro, K. S. D. S., Portella, R. B., & Granger, D. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1614379 · Cited by 7
“This theory, which has bases on behavioral ecology and cognitive neuroscience, suggests that the human brain expects access to social relationships that mitigate risk and diminish the level of effort needed to meet a variety of goals (7).”
Comte, A., Szymanska, M., Monnin, J., Moulin, T., Nezelof, S., Magnin, É., Jardri, R., & Vulliez‐Coady, L. (2024) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2024.2384393 · Cited by 6
“These different results are in line with the Social Baseline Theory (Coan & Sbarra, 2015), which describes how avoidant individuals do not expect social resources to be available and thus up-regulate their own defenses.”
InfluentialJia, C., Wu, T., Li, S. U. N., & Qin, J. (2022) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2023.00455 · Cited by 6
Compassionate Bodies, Compassionate Minds
Petrocchi, N., & Ottaviani, C. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198888727.003.0017 · Cited by 6
Using the primary process emotional–behavioural system to better meet patient needs in psychotherapy
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From therapy to therapeutic: the continuum of trauma-informed care
O’Hara, C. A. (2019) · Children Australia · doi:10.1017/cha.2019.4 · Cited by 6
Extraversion level predicts perceived benefits from social resources and tool use
Murday, V., Moinier, K., Osiurak, F., & Brunel, L. C. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91298-w · Cited by 6
The Interprocessual-Self Theory in Support of Human Neuroscience Studies
Luís, E. O., Akrivou, K., Bermejo‐Martins, E., Scalzo, G. R., & Semper, J. V. O. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.686928 · Cited by 9
Conceptual approaches to studying interpersonal emotion dynamics
Randall, A. K., & Schoebi, D. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316822944.003 · Cited by 8
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Booker, L., Mowbray, P. K., Townsend, K., & Chan, X. W. (2025) · Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.1111/1744-7941.70019 · Cited by 8
Sexual Synchrony During Partnered Sex
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“As a result, energy is conserved, enabling individuals to engage more flexibly with their environment, including their relational dynamics (Beckes & Coan, 2011; Coan & Sbarra, 2015; Coan et al., 2006).”
Dworakowski, O., Huber, Z. M., Meier, T., Boyd, R. L., Martin, M., & Horn, A. B. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192315699 · Cited by 6
“The notion of a socio-affective pathway has been referenced in different views on IER as the fulfillment of affiliative needs [19], social proximity [16], and affiliation, as well as safety signals [20].”
BackgroundMethodStress Regulation via Being in Nature and Social Support in Adults, a Meta-analysis
Sparacio, A., Ropovik, I., Jiga‐Boy, G. M., Cem, A., & IJzerman, H. (2023) · Collabra Psychology · doi:10.1525/collabra.77343 · Cited by 8
“…2011) offers an account that can provide a mechanism for the stress-buffering hypothesis, as it suggests that social support and proximity to others reduces the perceived threat of a stressor and people can thus exert less effort in regulating stress (Coan & Sbarra, 2015; Ein-Dor et al., 2015).”
BackgroundTrust in Social Interaction: From Dyads to Civilizations
Christov‐Moore, L., Bolis, D., Kaplan, J., Schilbach, L., & Iacoboni, M. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-08651-9_8 · Cited by 10
You, D. S., & Meagher, M. W. (2017) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2017.1322935 · Cited by 5
“decrease threat vigilance and distress through risk distribution and load sharing.(43,44) In contrast, lack of quality relationships increases cognitive and physiological efforts to deal with distress.”
BackgroundLong, E. U., Wheeler, N., & Cunningham, W. A. (2020) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2020.02.025 · Cited by 7
Social engagement, self‐efficacy, and posttraumatic stress symptoms across 6 months of psychotherapy
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Social reappraisal of emotions is linked with the social presence effect in the default mode network
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Kaçmaz, C., Çelik, O. T., & Tunç, Y. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07577-6 · Cited by 5
“However, negative experiences in social relationships during adolescence can cause emo - tional distress and jeopardize healthy development (Coan & Sbarra, 2015 ).”
Allen, J. P., Loeb, E. L., Davis, A. A., Costello, M. A., & Uchino, B. N. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-022-00334-1 · Cited by 4
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Gong, D., Yan, H., Wu, M., Wang, Y., Lei, Y., Wang, X., & Xiao, R. (2025) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics14061129 · Cited by 5
Lamarche, V. M. (2021) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070211022119 · Cited by 7
“Rather, it is an adaptive response reflecting the value of close relationships in the defense against existential harms (Coan & Sbarra, 2015; Florian et al., 2002; Murray et al., 2018; Plusnin et al., 2018; Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundLeveraging Neuroscience‐Informed Resilience Principles to Support Clients' Career Decision‐Making
Dickinson, R., Miller, R., & Beeson, E. T. (2021) · The Career Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/cdq.12278 · Cited by 5
The Meso-Expression Test (MET): A Novel Assessment of Emotion Perception
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Hansen, R., Garcés, J. A., Quevedo, S., Ferrada, M., Cottin, M., & Hernández, C. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-05810-2 · Cited by 5
“On the other hand, seeking for social connections online is not only related to social anxiety and problematic internet usage, as it is a common behavior with ground in a human basic need (Coan & Sbarra, 2015).”
Hand‐blink reflex modulation: The role of primary emotions and attachment dimensions
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Moon, H., An, J. H., Kim, M. H., Park, S., Jung, J. Y., Kim, D., Hahm, B., Hong, J. P., & Chang, H. (2023) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-023-01161-4 · Cited by 4
“Not surprisingly, the loss of social relationships can cause emotional distress and compromise individuals’ healthy functioning (Coan & Sbarra, 2015).”
Интеграция нейрофизиологических и социологических методов: новые перспективы нейросоциологии
Reznikov, M. Y. (2024) · doi:10.61726/4969.2024.35.80.001 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Coan, J. A., & Sbarra, D. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- University of Arizona (US)
- Corresponding author
- Coan, James A
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-02
- Volume
- 1
- Pages
- 87-91
- ISSN
- 2352-250X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4375548
- OpenAlex
- W2022429540
- Cited by
- 313
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 8
- FWCI
- 2.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH080725)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Keywords
- interpersonal relationships, risk, effort, attachment, behavioral ecology, cognitive neuroscience, perception, self-representation, relationship disruption, self and other, relationship loss, recovery
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