Oxytocin: a parenting hormone
Open accessAbstract
In non-human mammals mothering is hormone-dependent, with crucial roles for oxytocin and prolactin. While human parenting is not hormone-dependent, hormonal changes in oxytocin, vasopressin, prolactin, testosterone, and cortisol prime and accompany the expression of parenting. In the following we focus on oxytocin (OT) as a key hormone in human parenting. OT is a nine-amino-acid neuropeptide hormone which evolved from the ancient vasotocin molecule approximately 650 MYO. OT is implicated in sociality across vertebrate evolution and substantial research has pinpointed its role in birth, lactation, and maternal care in mammals. Over the last decade, studies have begun to examine peripheral levels of OT - in plasma, saliva, urine, and to lesser extend CSF - in humans as well as OT administration to parents. Correlational and experimental studies indicate that OT is associated with increased parent-child synchrony, sensitive parenting, and parental contact; interacts with other hormones, such as vasopressin, cortisol, or testosterone to create parent-specific effects; is associated with activation of key nodes in the parental brain, and is altered in conditions of high risk or parental psychopathology. We conclude by discussing the potential role of OT in interventions for high-risk parenting.
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Collaterals of hypothalamic neurons release oxytocin into the brain, resulting in neural circuit alterations contributing to the emergence of maternal behavior.
“Collaterals of those hypothalamic neurons release OT into the brain, resulting in neural circuit alterations contributing to the emergence of maternal behavior [25,26].”
From The Neurobiology of Love and Pair Bonding from Human and Animal Perspectives (2023) · cites this paper as [25]
Levels of oxytocin increased over the first 6 months of fatherhood and after stimulatory play.
“Levels of oxytocin, another hormone related to parenting (Feldman & Bakermans‐Kranenburg, 2017), increased over the first 6 months of fatherhood and after stimulatory play (Abraham & Feldman, 2018)”
From Birth of a Father: Fathering in the First 1,000 Days (2019) · cites this paper as Feldman & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017
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Oxytocin system gene methylation is associated with empathic responses towards children.
Spencer, H., Lesemann, F. H. P., Kraaijenvanger, E., Overbeek, G., Montoya, E. R., Branje, S., Boks, M., & Bos, P. (2021) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105629 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Muluh, E. A. E., McCormack, J., Mo, Y.-F., Garratt, M., & Peng, M. (2023) · Physiology and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114388 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Elevated levels of oestrogen and oxytocin are believed to facilitate olfactory recognition of offspring and thus stimulate maternal care [33].”
BackgroundNeuroendocrine mechanisms contributing to the coevolution of sociality and communication
Freiler, M. K., & Smith, G. T. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2023.101077 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Galbally, M., Watson, S. J., Keelan, J., MacMillan, K. K., Power, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Lewis, A. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.07.010 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Intranasal oxytocin decreases cross-frequency coupling of neural oscillations at rest
Rutherford, H. J. V., Guo, X. M., Wu, J., Graber, K. M., Hayes, N. J., Pelphrey, K. A., & Mayes, L. C. (2017) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.09.017 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Nakissa, A. (2023) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel14020203 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Kilbride, H., Vohr, B., McGowan, E., Peralta-Carcelen, M., Stringer, K., Das, A., Archer, S., & Hintz, S. (2022) · Seminars in Perinatology · doi:10.1016/j.semperi.2022.151642 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Childhood adversity and parenting behavior: the role of oxytocin receptor gene polymorphisms
Reichl, C., Kaess, M., Fuchs, A., Bertsch, K., Bödeker, K., Zietlow, A., Dittrich, K., Hartmann, A. M., Rujescu, D., Parzer, P., et al. (2019) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-019-02009-9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
A systematic review of associations between hormone levels in hair and peripartum depression
Hill, K. E., Cárdenas, E. F., Yu, E., Hammond, R., Humphreys, K. L., & Kujawa, A. (2024) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107194 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Higashida, H., Oshima, Y., & Yamamoto, Y. (2024) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2024.171230 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
From Oxytocin to Compassion: The Saliency of Distress
Kucerova, B., Levit‐Binnun, N., Gordon, I., & Golland, Y. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12020183 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Witte, A., de Moor, M. D., Majdandžić, M., Verhees, M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. (2022) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105175 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Whereas most studies have devoted attention to the hormonal underpinnings of maternal behavior, there is an increasing body of research pointing to the involvement of hormones in fathering behaviors (Feldman and Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017; Grumi et al., 2021).”
Self-citationWirobski, G., Schaebs, F. S., Range, F., Marshall-Pescini, S., & Deschner, T. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-92356-z · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Gerasimenko, M., Lopatina, O., Munesue, S., Harashima, A., Yokoyama, S., Yamamoto, Y., & Higashida, H. (2021) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113395 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
van Herwijnen, I. R. (2021) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-bja10066 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“One such hormone is oxytocin, a hypothalamic neuropeptide (Rilling, 2013; Feldman, 2016; Feldman, 2017; Feldman & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017).”
BackgroundLiu, S., Pan, S.-Y., Tan, J., Zhao, W.-N., & Liu, F.-G. (2017) · Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.taap.2017.10.022 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
PVN-mPFC OT projections modulate pup-directed pup care or attacking in virgin mandarin volesPreprint
Li, L., Li, Y., Huang, C.-H., Hou, W.-J., Lv, Z., Zhang, L.-Z., Qu, Y., Sun, Y., Huang, K., Han, X., et al. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.96543 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Exploring the role of endocrine factors in sensitive parenting in men
Lotz, A. M., Buisman, R. S. M., Dijk, K. A., Witte, A. M., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., & Verhees, M. W. F. T. (2022) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105118 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“A widely studied hormone in the context of the study of parental sensitivity is OT (Feldman and Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017).”
InfluentialSelf-citationRoncallo, C. P., Barreto, F. B., & de Miguel, M. S. (2018) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2018.1495630 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In the case of fathers, parenting behaviour varies widely at both an individual and cultural level, especially as regards emotional expression and childcare Feldman & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017).”
BackgroundDiurnal changes of salivary oxytocin in healthy and psychiatric adolescents
Gizunterman, A., Zagoory‐Sharon, O., Avirame, K., Mevorach, T., Foul, Y. A., Feldman, R., & Eitan, R. (2025) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2025.04.007 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationWeinstein, S. R., Erickson, E. N., Molina, R., & Bell, A. F. (2023) · Comprehensive Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.cpnec.2023.100209 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Coté, J. J., Côté‐Arsenault, D., Handelzalts, J. E., Badura-Brack, A. S., Kalata, M. E., Walters, R. W., Kasinath, P., Kump, D. A., Herbig, K., & Tampi, R. (2023) · Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.jogn.2023.02.002 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Moral judgment and hormones: A systematic literature review
Freitas, C. C. M. D. C., & Osório, F. D. L. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265693 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“This is possibly due to the association of hormones with a number of other human behaviors, such as fatherhood and motherhood [24,25], sexuality [26], stress [27], affiliation and social cognition [28,29], and others.”
BackgroundEngland-Mason, G., MacMillan, H., Atkinson, L., Steiner, M., & Gonzalez, A. (2021) · Archives of Women's Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-021-01194-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Oxytocin has been referred to as the “parenting hormone” due to the substantial evidence pinpointing its role in caregiving (Feldman and Bakermans-Kranenburg 2017).”
BackgroundBlythe, S., Elcombe, E., Peters, K., Burns, E., & Gribble, K. (2021) · International Journal of Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105360 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kaźmierczak, M., Pawlicka, P., Anikiej‐Wiczenbach, P., Łada‐Maśko, A., Kiełbratowska, B., Rybicka, M., Kotłowska, A., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18094815 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationSchneider-Schmid, U., Morgado, A., Heim, C. C., Klawitter, H., Hellmeyer, L., & Entringer, S. (2025) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2025.107564 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Social interactions between attachment partners increase inter-brain plasticity
Schwartz, L., Lévy, J., Salomonski, C., Peleg, I., Hayut, O., Zagoory‐Sharon, O., & Feldman, R. (2025) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2025.149856 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“This multi-level synchrony represents both the immediate mechanism of social interaction and a pathway through which repeated social experiences may shape neural development (Feldman, 2015, 2017, 2021).”
InfluentialSelf-citationBudniok, S., Bakermans‐Kranenburg, M. J., & Bosmans, G. (2024) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316241296180 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“These feelings are accompanied by changes on a neuroendocrinological level such as a decrease in cortisol and an increase in oxytocin (OT; Feldman & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017; Hostinar et al., 2015).”
Self-citationModulating reward and aversion: Insights into addiction from the paraventricular nucleus
Huang, S., Shi, C., Tao, D., Yang, C., & Luo, Y. (2024) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/cns.70046 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Attachment Reminders Trigger Widespread Synchrony across Multiple Brains
Shimon-Raz, O., Yeshurun, Y., Ulmer-Yaniv, A., Levinkron, A., Salomon, R., & Feldman, R. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0026-23.2023 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Finally, as oxytocin (OT) is a key modulator of the maternal brain in humans (Numan, 2006; Norholt, 2020) and other mammals (Bosch and Neumann, 2012; Feldman and Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017; Althammer et al., 2018) and OT administration impacts activity and connectivity in the PCN in response to…”
BackgroundSelf-citationFeldman, R. (2023) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/apa.16676 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationKázmierczak, M., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. (2022) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2022.2063911 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Empathy might be seen as an infant-oriented reaction to crying and has been related to parental sensitivity and responsiveness (Leerkes & Qu, 2020) as well as to increased parental oxytocin (OT) levels (Feldman & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEdwards, H., Buisman-Pijlman, F. T., Esterman, A., Phillips, C., Orgeig, S., & Gordon, A. L. (2021) · Journal of midwifery & women's health · doi:10.1111/jmwh.13217 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Lønfeldt, N. N., Strandberg‐Larsen, K., Verhulst, F. C., Plessen, K. J., & Lebowitz, E. R. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.04.067 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Elmadih, A., & Abumadini, M. S. (2018) · Saudi Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences · doi:10.4103/sjmms.sjmms_163_17 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“[12] Here, the authors focus on OT as a key factor implicated in social behavior and parenting[13] as well as in brain adaptation to quality of perceived parenting.[14] Quality of maternal caregiving not only impacts children’s development but can also result in heritable”
BackgroundParental Incarceration, Attachment to Caregivers, and Young Children's Physiological Stress
Muentner, L., Fanning, K. A., Pritzl, K., Kapoor, A., Weymouth, L., Krishnan, C. A., & Poehlmann, J. (2025) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.70076 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“According to the LTA, changes in neuroendocrine activity, such as lowered cortisol/cortisone and increased oxytocin (Hostinar and Gunnar 2013; Feldman and Bakermans-Kranenburg 2017), accompany such feelings of comfort after learning events.”
Exploring the role of OXTR gene methylation in attachment development: A longitudinal study
Cuyvers, B., Ein‐Dor, T., Houbrechts, M., Freson, K., Goossens, L., Noortgate, W. V. D., Leeuwen, K. G. V., Bijttebier, P., Claes, S. J., Turner, J. D., et al. (2024) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22496 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Feldman, R., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J.
- Affiliations
- Bar-Ilan University (IL)
- Corresponding author
- Feldman, Ruth
- ORCID
- Feldman, Ruth
- Venue
- Current Opinion in Psychology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-06
- Volume
- 15
- Pages
- 13-18
- ISSN
- 2352-250X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2590449830
- Cited by
- 160
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 10
- FWCI
- 2.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Current Opinion in Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (024.001.003)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Pharmacy › Infant Health and Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Keywords
- oxytocin, parenting, maternal care, vasopressin, prolactin, testosterone, cortisol, parent-child synchrony, parental sensitivity, parental psychopathology, lactation, births
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