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Cited by 34Memory Processes and InfluencesMemory and Neural MechanismsNeurobiology of Language and Bilingualism

Neural mechanisms of the spacing effect in episodic memory: A parallel EEG and fMRI study

Zhao, Xiao, Wang, Changming, Liu, Qi, Xiao, Xiaoqian, Jiang, Ting, Chen, Chuansheng, Xue, Gui·2015·Cortex
DOI 10.1016/j.cortex.2015.04.002
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Abstract

Although behavioral studies have consistently reported the spacing effect in learning, its cognitive and neural mechanisms are still not clearly elucidated. According to the storage/retrieval strength framework proposed by Bjork (1999; Bjork & Bjork, 1992), which was built on the study-phase retrieval hypothesis and the deficient processing hypothesis, the spacing effect is achieved by reducing memomtary retrieval strength during subsequent repetitions and thus enhancing storage strength. The present study tested this hypothesis with parallel fMRI and EEG. Participants were asked to study 180 words that were repeated three times, with half of the words having an inter-repetition-lag of 1-3 words (i.e., massed learning) and the other half an inter-repetition-lag of 25-35 words (i.e., spaced learning). An unexpected recognition test was administered 24 h after learning. Consistent with Bjork's hypothesis, the EEG data suggested that spaced learning was associated with weaker retrieval strength, as indicated by a reduced familiarity effect in frontal N400. Meanwhile, spaced learning effectively enhanced the encoding process and thus led to stronger storage strength, as indicated by greater fMRI responses during learning in brain regions whose activities were associated with subsequent memory. Interestingly, no direct association was found between repetition priming and episodic memory. These results furthered our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying the spacing effect.

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  • The premise that a strict 24 h interval is universally fundamental should be qualified; this pattern is documented predominantly within non-declarative, procedural motor skill acquisition, whereas explicit conceptual and lexical mastery demonstrates superior consolidation via longer, expanding multi-day schedules.

    “For instance, the premise that a strict 24 h interval is universally fundamental should be qualified (Valderama & Oligo, 2021;Zhao et al., 2015); this pattern is documented predominantly within non-declarative, procedural motor skill acquisition (Khalafi et al., 2024), whereas explicit conceptual and lexical mastery demonstrates superior consolidation via longer, expanding multi-day schedules (Vag”

    From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Zhao et al., 2015

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Authors
Zhao, X., Wang, C., Liu, Q., Xiao, X., Jiang, T., Chen, C., & Xue, G.
Affiliations
  • Beijing Normal University (CN)
  • University of California, Irvine (US)
Corresponding author
Xue, Gui
ORCID
Venue
Cortex
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2015-08
Volume
69
Pages
76-92
ISSN
0010-9452 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.cortex.2015.04.002
OpenAlex
W2080499927
Cited by
33
References
100
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 2
FWCI
1.60
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations
  • Cortex (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Natural Science Foundation of China (31130025)
  • 973 Program (2014CB846102)
  • 111 Project (B07008)
  • NSFC Project (31221003)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
Keywords
spacing effect, episodic memory, spaced learning, massed learning, recognition memory, familiarity effects, N400, encoding, repetition priming, word learning
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Brain, Brain Mapping, Electroencephalography, Female, Humans, Judgment, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Reaction Time, Mental Recall, Recognition, Psychology, Young Adult, Memory, Episodic

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