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Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study
Open accessAbstract
Little work has been conducted that examines the effects of positive environmental experiences on brain development to date. The aim of this study was to prospectively investigate the effects of positive (warm and supportive) maternal behavior on structural brain development during adolescence, using longitudinal structural MRI. Participants were 188 (92 female) adolescents, who were part of a longitudinal adolescent development study that involved mother-adolescent interactions and MRI scans at approximately 12 years old, and follow-up MRI scans approximately 4 years later. FreeSurfer software was used to estimate the volume of limbic-striatal regions (amygdala, hippocampus, caudate, putamen, pallidum, and nucleus accumbens) and the thickness of prefrontal regions (anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices) across both time points. Higher frequency of positive maternal behavior during the interactions predicted attenuated volumetric growth in the right amygdala, and accelerated cortical thinning in the right anterior cingulate (males only) and left and right orbitofrontal cortices, between baseline and follow up. These results have implications for understanding the biological mediators of risk and protective factors for mental disorders that have onset during adolescence.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a longitudinal community sample of adolescents, observed positive maternal behavior during a conflictual interaction predicted structural brain development from early to mid-adolescence, including reduced right amygdala growth and greater left/right OFC thinning. Effects were partly sex-specific for right ACC thinning in males and were not explained by aggressive maternal behavior.
Key findings
- Higher positive maternal behavior predicted reduced growth of the right amygdala (β = −0.284, p = 0.014) and greater thinning of the left and right OFC (β = −0.262, p = 0.024; β = −0.258, p = 0.022).
- Positive maternal behavior × sex predicted right ACC change (β = −0.311, p = 0.045); follow-up analyses showed greater right ACC thinning in males (β = −0.525, p = 0.007) but no association in females (β = 0.042, p = 0.789).
- Aggressive maternal behavior predicted increased growth of the right putamen (β = 0.306, p = 0.012); positive maternal behavior effects were not better explained by aggressive maternal behavior.
- Positive parenting was not associated with the structure of the majority of regions at baseline or follow-up (reported as Supplementary data).
Methods
- Participants were a community sample of 188 adolescents (92 females) from metropolitan Melbourne, Australia; 163 completed baseline mother–adolescent interaction tasks, and 102 had acceptable baseline and follow-up MRI data (mean follow-up = 3.78 years, SD = 0.20; baseline MRI age = 12.62, SD = 0.44; follow-up MRI age = 16.42, SD = 0.50).
- Mother–adolescent dyads completed videotaped event-planning and problem-solving interactions coded with the LIFE system; positive maternal behavior was taken from the problem-solving interaction and aggressive maternal behavior from the event-planning interaction. MRI was processed with FreeSurfer longitudinal stream for subcortical volumes (amygdala, hippocampus, caudate, nucleus accumbens, putamen, pallidum) and cortical thickness (ACC, OFC).
- Hierarchical linear regressions predicted residualized ROI change scores, with covariates age, SES, IQ, depressive and anxiety symptoms, and aggressive maternal behavior; positive maternal behavior and sex were entered next, followed by their interaction. Missing data were handled with FIML in Mplus.
Limitations
- Stated: only two imaging time points limited modeling to linear patterns of brain development, so non-linear effects and effects extending into late adolescence or adulthood could not be assessed.
- Stated: only one observed measure of positive parenting was used; fathers were not included; temperament-based sampling may restrict generalizability; no correction for multiple comparisons was applied; some FreeSurfer structures (particularly amygdala and nucleus accumbens) have relatively low reliability; multisite scanner/sequence bias was possible though post-acquisition procedures and an inter-scanner reliability assessment were used.
- Evident from the text: the observational longitudinal design cannot establish causal effects, and the MRI sample was 102 with complete-case analyses also run in 77 participants, which may limit power and generalizability alongside the temperament oversampling.
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In the paper
“Briefly, we found the caudate, thalamus and putamen to decline in volume over time.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dennison et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Higher rate of positive maternal behavior was associated with reduced growth of the right amygdala from early- to mid-adolescence”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“left and right OFC (β = −0.262, p = 0.024; β = −0.258, p = 0.022, respectively)”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Aggressive maternal behavior was associated with change in only one ROI, the right putamen; specifically, it predicted increased growth of this structure over time (β = 0.306, p = 0.012).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Although we found no evidence for significant development of the amygdala from early- to mid-adolescence in this sample (Dennison et al., 2013)”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dennison et al., 2013 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that higher frequency of positive maternal behavior was associated with reduced growth of the right amygdala, and accelerated thinning of the left and right OFC and right ACC (males only) from early to midadolescence.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Males had thicker whole brain corrected OFC's than females.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but showed no association with thinning for females (β = 0.042, p = 0.789, respectively).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The pallidum and hippocampus increased in volume over time.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dennison et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that higher frequency of positive maternal behavior was associated with reduced growth of the right amygdala, and accelerated thinning of the left and right OFC and right ACC (males only) from early to midadolescence.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 26
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
- It may state two separate claims as one. 10
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whole brain corrected thickness was greater in the left compared to the right ACC.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that higher frequency of positive maternal behavior was associated with reduced growth of the right amygdala, and accelerated thinning of the left and right OFC and right ACC (males only) from early to midadolescence.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While we found that positive parenting was associated with development in a number of regions, it was not associated with the structure of the majority of these regions at baseline or follow-up (see Supplementary data).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While amygdala volume did not change over time, there was a main effect of hemisphere such that the left amygdala was larger than the right.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dennison et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was significant thinning in the OFC over time, with greater thinning in the left compared to the right hemisphere.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was significant thinning in the ACC over time, with greater in the right compared to the left hemisphere.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While the left nucleus accumbens increased in size, the right accumbens decreased in size over the follow-up period.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dennison et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A wealth of animal studies indicates that environmental enhancement has effects on brain development across the lifespan (Halperin and Healey, 2011).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Halperin and Healey, 2011 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Adverse childhood environments represent an important risk factor for the development of psychopathology later in life (Heim and Nemeroff, 2001, Moran et al., 2004)”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Introduction
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Our previous work has shown that decreased levels of psychopathology are associated with attenuated growth of the amygdala, and accelerated growth of the hippocampus, during adolescence (Whittle et al., 2013).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Whittle et al., 2013
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“there is accumulating evidence that neurobiological changes (particularly with regard to brain structure) may mediate this relationship (Tupler and De Bellis, 2006).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tupler and De Bellis, 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“there is some evidence from animal studies that environmental enrichment has an effect on amygdala development (Okuda et al., 2009).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Okuda et al., 2009
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results suggest that positive and aggressive maternal behavior do not exist on a continuum of positive to negative, but rather may reflect two different aspects of parenting behaviors that have distinct effects on children's brain development.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that the frequency of positive maternal behavior during early adolescence was associated with structural development of regions implicated in reward processes, emotional reactivity and regulation, with some sex differences also being observed.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“There is also evidence that the interaction between prefrontal structures and the amygdala is critical to emotion regulation”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Banks et al., 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“given that positive maternal behaviors are thought to shape the development of their children's ability to regulate emotion and behaviors (Yap et al., 2010)”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Yap et al., 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“although the use of observed (as opposed to self-report) measures of maternal behavior is a strength of the study”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“post-acquisition procedures were adopted to minimize, as much as possible, any scanner/sequence effects on the acquired images.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“specifically prefrontal down-regulation of amygdala activity has been associated with the attenuation of negative affect during emotion regulation (Banks et al., 2007).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Banks et al., 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we did not assess other (or more specific) aspects of positive parenting (such as warmth, responsivity, and support) that may be important protective factors for other deleterious outcomes.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The amygdala is thought to be primarily involved in detection of, and reactivity to, emotionally salient stimuli (Habel et al., 2005).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Habel et al., 2005
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we were unable to include fathers in analyses, due to the low number of participating fathers in the study.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“others have found normative increases in the volume of this structure over the adolescent years (e.g., Ostby et al., 2009).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ostby et al., 2009 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Specifically, Shaw et al. (2006), using a cohort-sequential design, found that adolescents with superior intellectual abilities exhibited greater cortical thinning in a number of cortical areas, including the OFC, into adulthood.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shaw et al., 2006 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“as MRI scans were acquired multisite, with different imaging sequences acquired at each site”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we cannot comment on whether positive parenting has non-linear effects on brain development, or whether the effects may extend into late adolescence and adulthood.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“our previous finding that low levels of psychopathology were associated with attenuated amygdala development from early to midadolescence (Whittle et al., 2013)”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Whittle et al., 2013
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Finally, in other work with the current sample, we have found that greater thinning in the ACC was associated with higher temperamental effortful control (Vijayakumar et al., in press-b).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Vijayakumar et al., in press-b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there is a possibility of scanner/sequence bias affecting volumetric and thickness estimates.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings may have implications for understanding the mechanisms underlying the relationship between positive parenting and reduced risk for a range of negative outcomes.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Positive parenting has been found to be associated with increased positive adolescent outcomes, and resilience against negative adolescent outcomes.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“given our temperamental sampling strategy, our results may have restricted generalizability.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“sample sizes of approximately 80 and above are suggested to be adequately powered to detect small to medium effect sizes in these structures (Morey et al., 2010).”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Morey et al., 2010
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is very unlikely that the measure of positive maternal behavior interacted with scanner or sequence type in any way that might bias the reported results.”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we did not control for multiple comparisons”
§ Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
Little work has examined the effects of positive parenting on brain structure in children and adolescents.
“Despite this evidence, to date, little work has been conducted that examines the effects of positive parenting on brain structure in children and adolescents.”
The paper relies on this without support.
None of the existing research has assessed longitudinal measures of brain development.
“Second, to our knowledge, none of the existing research has assessed longitudinal measures of brain development.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The longitudinal associations between positive parenting and adolescent brain structure reflect causal effects of positive parenting rather than unmeasured confounding.
“we have found, for the first time, longitudinal effects of positive parenting on structural development of the brain during adolescence.”
The paper relies on this without support.
No other human study to date has reported an effect of positive parenting on amygdala structure.
“Although no other human study to date has reported an effect of positive parenting on amygdala structure”
The paper relies on this without support.
Abnormalities in the structure and function of the amygdala, OFC, and ACC have been found in both adolescent and adult depression.
“Abnormalities in the structure and function of all of the regions associated with positive parenting in the current study (i.e., amygdala, OFC, ACC) have been found in both adolescent and adult depression.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Reliability for some FreeSurfer delineated structures (particularly the amygdala and nucleus accumbens) is relatively low.
“it has been suggested that reliability for some FreeSurfer delineated structures (particularly the amygdala and nucleus accumbens) is relatively low”
The paper relies on this without support.
Positive parenting has been found to be associated with increased positive adolescent outcomes, and resilience against negative adolescent outcomes.
“Given that positive parenting has been found to be associated with increased positive adolescent outcomes, and resilience against negative adolescent outcomes”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Specifically, more positive relationships between mothers and early adolescents have been associated with decreased volumetric growth of the amygdala”
From Becoming a sexual being: The “elephant in the room” of adolescent brain development (2017) · cites this paper as Whittle et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“The quality of maternal relationships in early adolescence has also been associated with changes in the trajectory of brain maturation.”
From Becoming a sexual being: The “elephant in the room” of adolescent brain development (2017) · cites this paper as Whittle et al., 2014
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Metadata
- Authors
- Whittle, S., Simmons, J. G., Dennison, M., Vijayakumar, N., Schwartz, O., Yap, M. B. H., Sheeber, L., & Allen, N. B.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Oregon Research Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Allen, Nicholas B.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-04
- Volume
- 8
- Pages
- 7-17
- ISSN
- 1878-9293 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6990097
- OpenAlex
- W1972771337
- Cited by
- 279
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 51 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 12.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Deakin Research Online (Deakin University) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Colonial Foundation
- National Health and Medical Research Council (350241)
- Australian Research Council (DP0878136)
- University of Melbourne
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Keywords
- positive parenting, maternal behavior, adolescent brain development, structural brain development, amygdala volume, cortical thinning, anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, mother-adolescent interaction, protective factors
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Amygdala, Brain, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Gyrus Cinguli, Hippocampus, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Maternal Behavior, Mother-Child Relations, Mothers, Reward, Sex Characteristics, Parenting, Prefrontal Cortex, Adolescent Development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-10, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-10 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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