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Costs and benefits of fat-free muscle mass in men: relationship to mating success, dietary requirements, and native immunity
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“The increasing performance gap between males and females as upper body strength becomes more critical for performance is likely explained to a large extent by the observation that males have disproportionately greater strength in their upper compared to lower body, while females show the inverse [44, 45].”
From Transgender Women in the Female Category of Sport: Perspectives on Testosterone Suppression and Performance Advantage (2021) · cites this paper as [44]
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“Men also have about 65% greater lower body strength (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Mayhew & Salm, 1990), over 45% higher vertical leap, and over 22% faster sprint times (Mayhew & Salm, 1990).”
BackgroundInfluentialHuman adaptations for the visual assessment of strength and fighting ability from the body and face
Sell, A. N., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J., Sznycer, D., Rueden, C. R. V., & Gurven, M. (2008) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.1177 · Cited by 631
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Adaptations in humans for assessing physical strength from the voice
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“For example, men mature later, have larger bodies (Plavcan & Van Schaik 1997), have higher basal metabolic rates (Garn & Clark 1953), larger hearts, better heat dissipation, more haemoglobin, more muscle, less fat and denser bones (Archer 2009; Lassek & Gaulin 2009).”
BackgroundNuzzo, J. L. (2022) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000004329 · Cited by 360
“(117,118,120,152,169,283,407); age of first sexual intercourse and the number of sexual partners in the past year for male subjects correlates with their amount of fat-free mass and limb muscle volume (265); and individuals who are not married rate “appearance” higher as a motive for their exercise participation than…”
BackgroundThe Importance of Physical Strength to Human Males
Sell, A. N., Hone, L. S. E., & Pound, N. (2012) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-012-9131-2 · Cited by 274
“…are most pronounced for the upper body with males on average having upper arm muscle volumes that are 78% greater than females while the difference for thigh muscle volumes was only 50% (Lassek & Gaulin 2009) and that these differences in muscle volume lead to predictable differences in strength.”
Stewart‐Williams, S., & Thomas, A. G. (2013) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2013.804899 · Cited by 253
“For several reasons, size dimorphism is not a useful indicator of ancestral mating patterns in our species (e.g., Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialPhysical Attractiveness: An Adaptationist Perspective
Sugiyama, L. S. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125563.evpsych112 · Cited by 224
The role of physical formidability in human social status allocation.
Lukaszewski, A. W., Simmons, Z. L., Anderson, C. P., & Roney, J. R. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000042 · Cited by 220
“…direct intrasexual competition over human evolution (Puts, 2010), and have therefore evolved much greater average physical formidability than women (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009) as well as a greater willingness to risk interpersonal conflict in the pursuit and maintenance of social status (Griskevicius…”
BackgroundSexual Selection on Human Faces and Voices
Puts, D. A., Jones, B. C., & DeBruine, L. M. (2012) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2012.658924 · Cited by 212
“The visual dissimilarity between men and women is partly due to men’s greater height and weight, but largely attributable to sex differences in body fat and muscle distribution (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009), along with conspicuous sex differences in body hair and, especially, facial hair.”
BackgroundThe Origins of Extraversion: Joint Effects of Facultative Calibration and Genetic Polymorphism
Lukaszewski, A. W., & Roney, J. R. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167210397209 · Cited by 203
Meta-Analysis of Menstrual Cycle Effects on Women’s Mate Preferences
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“…when androgens in combination with other hormones stimulate growth of the jaw, cheekbones, and brow ridges; lengthen the center of the face; promote facial and body hair; coarsen the skin, lower voice pitch; and increase musculature, lean body mass, and height (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Rhodes, 2006).”
BackgroundCanetto, S. S., & Chen, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.042 · Cited by 194
Deaner, R. O., Geary, D. C., Puts, D. A., Ham, S. A., Kruger, J., Fles, E. H., Winegard, B., & Grandis, T. L. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049168 · Cited by 213
“Second, a history of male-male aggression is revealed by pronounced sexual dimorphism in musculature, strength [23,24], and speed [25,26].”
BackgroundQuantifying the strength and form of sexual selection on men's traits
Hill, A. K., Hunt, J., Welling, L. L. M., Cárdenas, R. A., Rotella, M. A., Wheatley, J. R., Dawood, K., Shriver, M. D., & Puts, D. A. (2013) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.05.004 · Cited by 197
“These results support the notion that men's approximately 60% greater muscularity (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009) and voices approximately five standard deviations lower in pitch and timbre (Puts et al., 2012) evolved in the context of male contests (Puts, 2010).”
ResultHow Sexually Dimorphic Are Human Mate Preferences?
Conroy-Beam, D., Buss, D. M., Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215590987 · Cited by 187
“Nonetheless, these unidimensional differences are generally considered evidence of sexual dimorphism (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009) and are comparable with, and even smaller than, the sex difference in the overall pattern of mate choice.”
ResultDoes Masculinity Matter? The Contribution of Masculine Face Shape to Male Attractiveness in Humans
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“In humans, preliminary evidence suggests there is an association between circulating testosterone levels and anatomical masculinity in faces [11], but the evidence for an association between either testosterone or masculinity and disease resistance is scant, inconsistent, and largely negative [7,12–20].”
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Can evolutionary principles explain patterns of family violence?
Archer, J. E. (2012) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0029114 · Cited by 163
Upper-body strength predicts hunting reputation and reproductive success in Hadza hunter–gatherers
Apicella, C. L. (2014) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.07.001 · Cited by 153
The human anger face evolved to enhance cues of strength
Sell, A. N., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2014) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.05.008 · Cited by 157
“The last datum is relevant because numerous data sets have established that upper body strength in modern males is about 90% greater than in females (Abe, Kearns, & Fukunaga, 2003; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009), with the distributions of the two sexes only minimally overlapping.”
BackgroundThe Ancestral Logic of Politics
Petersen, M. B., Sznycer, D., Sell, A. N., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797612466415 · Cited by 146
Cues of upper body strength account for most of the variance in men's bodily attractiveness
Sell, A. N., Lukazsweski, A. W., & Townsley, M. (2017) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.1819 · Cited by 144
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Lukaszewski, A. W. (2013) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1908 · Cited by 124
“…men have been subjected to a much a more intense evolutionary history of physical contest competition than women (Puts, 2010), which is evidenced by the fact that men have evolved to have at least 80% greater upper-body muscle strength than women on average (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Puts, 2010).”
BackgroundThe Science of Sex Appeal: An Evolutionary Perspective
Gallup, G. G., & Frederick, D. A. (2010) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0020451 · Cited by 125
The relative importance of intra- and intersexual selection on human male sexually dimorphic traits
Kordsmeyer, T. L., Hunt, J., Puts, D. A., Ostner, J., & Penke, L. (2018) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.03.008 · Cited by 129
Vocal masculinity is a robust dominance signal in men
Wolff, S. E., & Puts, D. A. (2010) · Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1007/s00265-010-0981-5 · Cited by 115
“In addition, objective measures of physical dominance, such as strength (Lassek and Gaulin 2009) and height (Mueller and Mazur 2001), and measures of social dominance (Chagnon 1988; Perusse 1993) predict components of mating success in contemporary populations.”
BackgroundWomen’s preferences for men’s facial masculinity are strongest under favorable ecological conditions
Marcinkowska, U. M., Rantala, M. J., Lee, A. J., Kozlov, M. V., Aavik, T., Cai, H., Contreras-Garduño, J. A., David, D., Kaminski, G., Li, N. P., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-39350-8 · Cited by 113
The Body and the Beautiful: Health, Attractiveness and Body Composition in Men’s and Women’s Bodies
Brierley, M., Brooks, K. R., Mond, J., Stevenson, R. J., & Stephen, I. D. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156722 · Cited by 127
Facial Width-To-Height Ratio (fWHR) Is Not Associated with Adolescent Testosterone Levels
Hodges‐Simeon, C. R., Sobraske, K. N. H., Samore, T., Gurven, M., & Gaulin, S. J. C. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153083 · Cited by 108
“Strength was calculated as a standardized average of handgrip strength (via pneumonic hand dynamometer) and as flexed bicep size (via tape measure): an experimentally validated proxy for overall strength [10,70,71].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationPerceived Aggressiveness Predicts Fighting Performance in Mixed-Martial-Arts Fighters
Třebický, V., Havlı́ček, J., Roberts, S. C., Little, A. C., & Kleisner, K. (2013) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797613477117 · Cited by 108
“As the level of muscularity and masculinity—and also aggressive behavior—correlates with testosterone levels, specific facial configuration in heavyweights may be due to the effect of testosterone and other hormones affecting growth (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundWells, J. C. K. (2012) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.22223 · Cited by 110
“…ecological settings indicate subtle sexdifferences in body composition at birth (Andersen et al., 2011; Butte et al., 2000; Fomon et al., 1982), which subsequently become exaggerated through pubertal development (Bogin, 1999; Haschke, 1989; Hattori et al., 2004; Maynard et al., 2001; Wells, 2009).”
BackgroundProtective buttressing of the hominin face
Carrier, D. R., & Morgan, M. H. (2014) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.12112 · Cited by 102
“Thus, humans do show very high levels of sexual dimorphism in the parts of the postcranial musculoskeletal system that appear to be most important in fighting (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Puts, 2010; Carrier, 2011; Sell, Hone & Pound, 2012; Morgan & Carrier, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialLee, A. J., & Zietsch, B. P. (2011) · Biology Letters · doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0454 · Cited by 100
Lombardo, M. P. (2012) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470491201000101 · Cited by 108
“…faster, and stronger than women (Abe, Kearns, and Fukunaga, 2003; Archer, 2004, 2009; Cardinale and Stone, 2006; Cheuvront, Carter, Deruisseau, and Moffatt, 2005; Lassek and Gaulin, 2009; Mayhew and Salm, 1990; Miller, MacDougall, Tarnopolsky, and Sale, 1993; Seiler, DeKoning, and Foster, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialHodges‐Simeon, C. R., Gaulin, S. J. C., & Puts, D. A. (2010) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9625-0 · Cited by 96
“…facts about human biology—for example, the large sex differences in muscle mass mentioned above, as well as parallel sex differences in aggressiveness (Archer, 2004)— suggest that male–male competition was probably at least as important in shaping men's traits (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Puts, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSex Differences in Sports Across 50 Societies
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“Second, this history is revealed by pronounced sexual dimorphism in strength and related attributes (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Mayhew & Salm, 1990; Seiler, De Koning, & Foster, 2007).”
Cross, C., & Campbell, A. C. (2011) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2011.02.012 · Cited by 86
Theoretical frameworks for human behavioral endocrinology
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“With respect to effects onmuscle mass, Lassek and Gaulin (2009) reported a positive correlation between testosterone and limb muscle volume in a large sample in the United States; furthermore, muscle mass positively predicted number of sex partners but negatively predicted measures of innate…”
The Role of Facial and Body Hair Distribution in Women’s Judgments of Men’s Sexual Attractiveness
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Standards of evidence for designed sex differences
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“…mate selection, Frederick and Haselton (2007) found that women preferred men who were moderately muscular, that muscular men reported having more total sex partners, more casual sex partners, and more affairs with women who had a partner at the time of the affair (see also Lassek and Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialSexual exploitability: observable cues and their link to sexual attraction
Goetz, C. D., Easton, J. A., Lewis, D. M. G., & Buss, D. M. (2012) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.12.004 · Cited by 81
“It is possible that the strength difference between men and women is so large (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009) that size and strength differences among women are irrelevant when assessing their exploitability.”
Male Facial Masculinity as a Cue to Health Outcomes
Boothroyd, L. G., Scott, I. M., Gray, A. W., Coombes, C., & Pound, N. (2013) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470491301100508 · Cited by 72
Sex differences in political leadership in an egalitarian society
Rueden, C. R. V., Alami, S., Kaplan, H. S., & Gurven, M. (2018) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.03.005 · Cited by 82
“In terms of upper body strength, the average man is stronger than 99% of women (Lassek and Gaulin, 2009), and men are on average more likely to engage in physical combat (Daly and Wilson, 1988; Archer, 2009).”
BackgroundParent, M. C. (2013) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/a0025644 · Cited by 73
Dixson, B. J. W., Duncan, M., & Dixson, A. F. (2015) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0516-2 · Cited by 77
Man up and take it: Gender bias in moral typecasting
Reynolds, T. A., Howard, C., Sjåstad, H., Zhu, L. L., Okimoto, T. G., Baumeister, R. F., Aquino, K. F., & Kim, J. (2020) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2020.05.002 · Cited by 83
Eye-tracking women’s preferences for men’s somatotypes
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Sex Differences in the Perceived Dominance and Prestige of Women With and Without Cosmetics
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A meta-analysis of the association between male dimorphism and fitness outcomes in humans
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“Relative to this fairly modest body size dimorphism, upper body musculature and strength are highly dimorphic in humans: compared to women, men have 61% more overall muscle mass, and 90% greater upper body strength ( Lassek and Gaulin, 2009 ).”
Predictors of enhancing human physical attractiveness: Data from 93 countries
Kowal, M., Sorokowski, P., Pisanski, K., Valentová, J. V., Varella, M. A. C., Frederick, D. A., Al-Shawaf, L., García, F. E., Giammusso, I., Gjoneska, B., et al. (2022) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2022.08.003 · Cited by 72
“Fat-free muscle mass has been linked to having more sex partners (Lassek and Gaulin, 2009).”
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Gray, P. B. (2013) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22394 · Cited by 70
Is sociopolitical egalitarianism related to bodily and facial formidability in men?
Price, M. E., Sheehy-Skeffington, J. A., Sidnaius, J., & Pound, N. (2017) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.04.001 · Cited by 63
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Formidability assessment mechanisms: Examining their speed and automaticity
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Lukaszewski, A. W., Larson, C. M., Gildersleeve, K. A., Roney, J. R., & Haselton, M. G. (2014) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.03.002 · Cited by 57
“…not necessarily indicate poor overall condition (because energy is finite and can be allocated in multiple ways), high physical strength is a positive indicator of being in good enough condition to invest heavily in muscle growth and maintenance (Frederick & Haselton, 2007; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
Handgrip Strength as a Darwinian Fitness Indicator in Men
Gallup, A. C., & Fink, B. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00439 · Cited by 56
“…between the sexes in terms of stature and overall body mass (Isen et al., 2014), and thus likely reflects the disproportionately higher levels of androgenic hormones (Page et al., 2005) and upper-body muscularity of men compared to women (Kallman et al., 1990; Lassek and Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundThe evolutionary psychology of violence.
Goetz, A. T. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 54
Average Associations Between Sexual Desire, Testosterone, and Stress in Women and Men Over Time
Raisanen, J. C., Chadwick, S. B., Michalak, N. M., & van Anders, S. M. (2018) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1231-6 · Cited by 52
Responsiveness of the reproductive axis to a single missed evening meal in young adult males
Trumble, B. C., Brindle, E., Kupsik, M., & O’Connor, K. A. (2010) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.21079 · Cited by 53
Gorillas in Our Midst? Human Sexual Dimorphism and Contest Competition in Men
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Genetic influences on the development of grip strength in adolescence
Isen, J. D., McGue, M. K., & Iacono, W. G. (2014) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22492 · Cited by 52
“Indeed, sexual dimorphism in fat-free (muscle) mass far exceeds that for total body mass. Upperbody muscle mass is approximately 75% higher in men than women (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundTrumble, B. C., Cummings, D. K., O’Connor, K. A., Holman, D. J., Smith, E. A., Kaplan, H. S., & Gurven, M. (2013) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2013.06.002 · Cited by 53
“Across taxa, baseline testosterone is a major determining factor in the levels of sexual dimorphism in body size, muscle mass and other sexually discordant somatic features (Bardin & Catterall, 1981; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
BackgroundPandemic Leadership: Sex Differences and Their Evolutionary–Developmental Origins
Luoto, S., & Varella, M. A. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633862 · Cited by 60
Facial appearance reveals immunity in African men
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Upper‐Body Strength and Political Egalitarianism: Twelve Conceptual Replications
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“In one of the most celebrated definitions of political science, Lasswell (1950) defined the field as the study of “who gets what, when and how.”
BackgroundPhysically strong men are more militant: A test across four countries
Sell, A. N., Sznycer, D., Cosmides, L., Tooby, J., Krauss, A., Nisu, S., Ceapa, C., & Petersen, M. B. (2016) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.11.002 · Cited by 46
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“In estimating the role of male contests in humans, it is thus more appropriate to consider sexual dimorphism in fat-free mass, which is 31%–43% greater in men than in women (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Wells, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialEvolutionary Social Psychology
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Gonadal steroids and salivary IgA in healthy young women and men
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Thompson, M. E., Muller, M. N., & Wrangham, R. W. (2012) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22157 · Cited by 47
Humans as a model species for sexual selection research
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Sell, A. N., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2015) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2015.09.003 · Cited by 45
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“These differences in muscularity translate into large differences in strength and speed, with the average man being stronger than 99.9% of women (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
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Self-citationBird, B. M., Welling, L. L. M., Ortiz, T. L., Moreau, B. J. P., Hansen, S., Emond, M. H., Goldfarb, B., Bonin, P. L., & Carré, J. M. (2016) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.08.003 · Cited by 44
Gerber, M., Cheval, B., Cody, R., Colledge, F., Hohberg, V., Klimentidis, Y. C., Lang, C., Looser, V. N., Ludyga, S., Stults‐Kolehmainen, M., et al. (2025) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00021.2024 · Cited by 59
Anthropometric correlates of human anger
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“Further, moderately high male upper body muscularity is itself perceived as attractive by females (Frederick & Haselton, 2007), which may help explain why men who are more muscular report having had more sex partners (Frederick & Haselton, 2007; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
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“Strength and height have been frequently found to increase male attractiveness since they are signals of genetic quality [28–30].”
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“…addition, testosterone concentrations were found to be negatively associated with immunoglobulin A (sIgA; Granger et al. 2000) and C-reactive protein (Lassek and Gaulin 2009; Tang et al. 2007), and positively associated with malaria parasitemia in Hondurans (Muehlenbein et al. 2005), among others.”
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“For example, consider the pronounced human sexual dimorphism in muscle mass and upper body strength (Lassek and Gaulin 2008; Lassek and Gaulin 2009).”
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“…and attractive in popular U.S. media (Frederick, Fessler, & Haselton, 2005), are rated more attractive than other men (Dixson, Dixson, Bishop, & Parish, 2010; Frederick & Haselton, 2007; Gray & Freder-ick, 2012), and report more sex partners (Frederick & Haselton, 2007; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
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“Accordingly, men’s upper-body strength is around 90 % greater than women’s and the average man is stronger than the vast majority of women (Hagen, & Rosenstro¨m, 2016; Lassek & Gaulin, 2009).”
Eveningness is related to men’s mating success
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Metadata
- Authors
- Lassek, W. D., & Gaulin, S. J. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lassek, William D.
- Venue
- Evolution and Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-09
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 322-328
- ISSN
- 1090-5138 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2032072020
- Semantic Scholar
- a65e9e71415eeaeced2772201a17627d162d31a5
- Cited by
- 397
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 76 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 20 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 17.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Evolution and Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Hormonal and reproductive studies
- Keywords
- sex differences, testosterone, mating success, sexual partners, age at first sexual intercourse, energy intake, C-reactive protein, white blood cell count, men's health
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