Retreating to safety: testing the social risk hypothesis model of depression
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Brain regions across the extended visceromotor network regulate motivation and neurobiological responses to stress, and play a central role in social threat and reward processing.
“Brain regions across this network regulate motivation (e.g., anhedonia and dopaminergic function) and neurobiological responses to stress, and play a central role in social threat and reward processing [39,41,56,57].”
From The depressed brain: an evolutionary systems theory (2017) · cites this paper as [56]
The social risk hypothesis has direct empirical backing.
“Figure: direct empirical support for the social risk hypothesis itself (Badcock & Allen, 2003; Badcock & Allen, 2007; Dunn, Whelton & Sharpe, 2012; Girard, Cohn, Mahoor, Mavadati, & Rosenwald, 2013).”
From The depressed brain: an evolutionary systems theory (2017) · cites this paper as Dunn, Whelton & Sharpe, 2012
Cites
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173 · Cited by 91,542 · see citing works
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173 · Cited by 91,532 · see citing works
Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411 · Cited by 41,941 · see citing works
Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling
Tabri, N., & Elliott, C. M. (2012) · Canadian Graduate Journal of Sociology and Criminology · doi:10.15353/cgjsc.v1i1.3787 · Cited by 39,065 · see citing works
(1998) · Cited by 36,049 · see citing works
The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245 · see citing works
(1969) · Cited by 18,340 · see citing works
Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations.
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.4.422 · Cited by 11,335 · see citing works
A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.83 · Cited by 9,406 · see citing works
(1995) · Cited by 6,909 · see citing works
To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits
Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002) · Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1207/s15328007sem0902_1 · Cited by 6,552 · see citing works
Henry, J. D., & Crawford, J. R. (2005) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466505x29657 · Cited by 5,801 · see citing works
Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.1.1.16 · Cited by 5,512 · see citing works
(2011) · Cited by 5,290 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Third Edition
Byrne, B. M. (2016) · doi:10.4324/9781315757421 · Cited by 4,653 · see citing works
Attachment and Loss. Vol. I. Attachment.
Jones, N. B., & Bowlby, J. (1970) · Man · doi:10.2307/2798963 · Cited by 4,201 · see citing works
Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research.
Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.115 · Cited by 4,037 · see citing works
Byrne, B. M. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9780203805534 · Cited by 4,016 · see citing works
Interaction Effects in Multiple Regression.
Richardson, S. T., Jacard, J., Turrisi, R., & Wan, C. K. (1991) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2348747 · Cited by 3,310 · see citing works
A domain‐specific risk‐attitude scale: measuring risk perceptions and risk behaviors
Weber, E. U., Blais, A., & Betz, N. E. (2002) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.414 · Cited by 2,936 · see citing works
Attachment and Loss: Vol.3: Loss : Sadness and Depression
Bowlby, J. (1980) · Cited by 2,659 · see citing works
Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis
Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.3.518 · Cited by 2,519 · see citing works
Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind
Sugiyama, L. (2001) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/1520-6300(200101/02)13:1 · Cited by 2,144 · see citing works
Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.
Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.895 · Cited by 2,007 · see citing works
Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135228 · Cited by 1,845 · see citing works
Advanced Structural Equation Modeling: Issues and Techniques
Rigdon, E. E. (1998) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/01466216980221008 · Cited by 1,631 · see citing works
New Developments and Techniques in Structural Equation Modeling
Marcoulides, G. A., & Schumacker, R. E. (2001) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410601858 · Cited by 1,339 · see citing works
Advanced Structural Equation Modeling
(2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315827414 · Cited by 1,339 · see citing works
A Domain-Specific Risk-Taking (DOSPERT) scale for adult populations
Blais, A.-R., & Weber, E. U. (2006) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500000334 · Cited by 1,286 · see citing works
Bowlby, J. (1980) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,207 · see citing works
Foss, B. (1966) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,157 · see citing works
Testing for Multigroup Invariance Using AMOS Graphics: A Road Less Traveled
Byrne, B. M. (2004) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1102_8 · Cited by 1,045 · see citing works
GILBERT, P., & ALLAN, S. (1998) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291798006710 · Cited by 972 · see citing works
Nesse, R. M. (2000) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.14 · Cited by 891 · see citing works
Nevitt, J., & Hancock, G. R. (2001) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1207/s15328007sem0803_2 · Cited by 886 · see citing works
Self‐Presentational Motivations and Personality Differences in Self‐Esteem
Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Hutton, D. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb02384.x · Cited by 877 · see citing works
Attachment in adults: Clinical and developmental perspectives.
Sperling, M. R., & Berman, W. (1994) · Guilford Press eBooks · Cited by 852 · see citing works
The development of a scale to measure fear
Geer, J. H. (1965) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(65)90040-9 · Cited by 777 · see citing works
Item Parceling Issues in Structural Equation Modeling
Bandalos, D. L., & Finney, S. J. (2001) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410601858-15 · Cited by 730 · see citing works
The Effect of Varying Degrees of Nonnormality in Structural Equation Modeling
Lei, M., & Lomax, R. G. (2005) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1201_1 · Cited by 705 · see citing works
Feeney, J. A., Noller, P., & Hanrahan, M. U. (1994) · Cited by 687 · see citing works
Analyzing data from experimental studies: A latent variable structural equation modeling approach.
Russell, D. W., Kahn, J. H., Spoth, R. L., & ALTMAIER, E. M. (1998) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.45.1.18 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
Multiple Regression and Beyond
Keith, T. Z. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315749099 · Cited by 572 · see citing works
The Social Competition Hypothesis of Depression
Price, J. S., Sloman, L., Gardner, R., Gilbert, P., & Rohde, P. (1994) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.164.3.309 · Cited by 561 · see citing works
The bright side of being blue: depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems.
Andrews, P. W., & Thomson, J. A. (2009) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0016242 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
A social comparison scale: psychometric properties and relationship to psychopathology.
Allan, S., & Gilbert, P. (1995) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00086-l · Cited by 525 · see citing works
Roberts, J. E., Gotlib, I. H., & Kassel, J. D. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.70.2.310 · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Allen, N. B., & Badcock, P. B. T. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.6.887 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
Depression: The Evolution of Powerlessness
Gilbert, P. (1992) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 492 · see citing works
The canine model of dietary hypersensitivity
Day, M. J. (2005) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1079/pns2005455 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Roberts, J. E., Gotlib, I. H., & Kassel, J. D. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.310 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Adult attachment style. I: Its relationship to clinical depression
Bifulco, A. T., Moran, P. M., Ball, C., & Bernazzani, O. (2002) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s127-002-8215-0 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Submissive behaviour and psychopathology
Allan, S., & Gilbert, P. (1997) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1997.tb01255.x · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Depression: the evolution of powerlessness
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.30-1785 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Evolution and the Social Mind : Evolutionary Psychology and Social Cognition
Forgas, J. P., Haselton, M. G., & von Hippel, W. (2011) · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Metalsky, G. I., & Joiner, T. E. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.63.4.667 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Treatment of Seasonal Affective Disorder with Light: Preliminary Australian Experience
McIntyre, I. M., Armstrong, S. M., Norman, T. R., & Burrows, G. D. (1989) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/00048678909068291 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Hughes, S. (1969) · PubMed Central · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Sloman, L. (2003) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(02)00116-7 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-0626 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Metalsky, G. I., & Joiner, T. E. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.4.667 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Adult attachment style. II: Its relationship to psychosocial depressive-vulnerability
Bifulco, A. T., Moran, P. M., Ball, C., & Lillie, A. (2002) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s127-002-8216-x · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Rasmussen, S. A., Fraser, L., Gotz, M., MacHale, S., Mackie, R., Masterton, G., McConachie, S., & O'Connor, R. C. (2010) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466509x415735 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Sloman, L., & Gilbert, P. (2000) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410605207 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Tennen, H. A., Hall, J. A., & Affleck, G. G. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.5.870 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Recent advances in our understanding of risk-sensitive foraging preferences
Melissa Bateson, B. (2002) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1079/pns2002181 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
An Evolutionary‐Psychological Approach to Self‐esteem: Multiple Domains and Multiple Functions
Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Ellis, B. J. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470998557.ch16 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Murphy, J. M., Horton, N. J., Laird, N. M., Monson, R. R., Sobol, A. M., & Leighton, A. H. (2004) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2003.00286.x · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Subordination and defeat: An evolutionary approach to mood disorders and their therapy
Buunk, B. P. (2000) · Cited by 112 · see citing works
(1999) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10320-000 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Varieties of Submissive Behavior as Forms of Social Defense: Their Evolution and Role in Depression
Weisfeld, G. E., & Wendorf, C. A. (2000) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410605207-8 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Taylor, P. J., Gooding, P. A., Wood, A. M., Johnson, J., & Tarrier, N. (2011) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1943-278x.2011.00029.x · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Depression and the Correspondent Inference Bias: Evidence for more Effortful Cognitive Processing
Yost, J. H., & Weary, G. (1996) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167296222008 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Psychoanalysis: A Creed in Decline
Parkinson, J. (1989) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/000486748902300301 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
An Overview of Depression-Prone Personality Traits and the Role of Interpersonal Sensitivity
Boyce, P. M., & Mason, C. (1996) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/00048679609076076 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Attributional and social comparison processes in depression.
Weary, G., Elbin, S. D., & Hill, M. G. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.52.3.605 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Interpersonal Sensitivity and the One-Year Outcome of a Depressive Episode
Boyce, P. M., Hickie, I. B., Parker, G. B., Mitchell, P. B., Wilhelm, K. A., & Brodaty, H. (1992) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/00048679209072022 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Mediation of depression by perceptions of defeat and entrapment in high‐stress mothers
Willner, P., & Goldstein, R. C. (2001) · British Journal of Medical Psychology · doi:10.1348/000711201161127 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
A new comprehensive evolutionary model of depression and anxiety
Sloman, L. (2007) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.07.008 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Social comparisons in dysphoric and low self-esteem people.
Wood, J. V., & Lockwood, P. (2004) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10320-004 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Attributional and social comparison processes in depression.
Weary, G., Elbin, S., & Hill, M. G. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.605 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The role of personality in defeat: a revised social rank model
Sturman, E. D., & Mongrain, M. (2007) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.653 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Adaptive social reasoning in depressed mood and depressive vulnerability
Badcock, P. B., & Allen, N. B. (2003) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930302299 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Mental disorders, evolution, and inclusive fitness
Preti, A., & Miotto, P. (2006) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x06379095 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Badcock, P. B., & Allen, N. B. (2007) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale
Patton, J. H., Stanford, M. S., & Barratt, E. S. (1995) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The depressed brain: an evolutionary systems theory
Badcock, P. B., Davey, C. G., Whittle, S., Allen, N. B., & Friston, K. J. (2017) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2017.01.005 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Wetherall, K., Robb, K. A., & O’Connor, R. C. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.045 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Kupferberg, A., & Hasler, G. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100631 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Badcock, P. B., Friston, K. J., Ramstead, M. J. D., Ploeger, A., & Hohwy, J. (2019) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-019-00721-3 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Shou, Y., & Olney, J. (2020) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s193029750000694x · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Cockshaw, W. D., Shochet, I. M., & Obst, P. L. (2014) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2014.33.5.448 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Measuring online and offline social rejection sensitivity in the digital age.
Andrews, J. L., Khin, A. C., Crayn, T., Humphreys, K., & Schweizer, S. (2022) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0001136 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Scherr, S. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-0020-7 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Social anxiety in modern societies from an evolutionary perspective
Haugan, T. (2023) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-023-00074-6 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Mistretta, E. G., Davis, M. C., & Yeung, E. W. (2020) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2020.39.01.001 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Li, P. F. J. (2025) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2024.2446440 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Why Jerk Bosses Stress Us: Burnout as an Evolved Appeasement Strategy
Garcia, H. A., Reiss, J. J., & Garza, R. (2025) · Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology · doi:10.1007/s40750-025-00267-4 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pubertal development and the emergence of the gender gap in affective disorders
Allen, N. B., Latham, M. D., Barrett, A., Sheeber, L., & Davis, B. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107045132.008 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The social, genetic and environmental aspects
Castle, D. J., & Abel, K. M. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107045132.002 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bilston, A., Daniels, S., Hasan, Y., & Schweizer, S. (2026) · doi:10.2196/preprints.94753 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Risky behavior, mate value, and low mood: Is it adaptive for men to be risk takers?
Meteer, J. D. (2013) · Cardinal Scholar (Ball State University)
Bilston, A., Daniels, S., Hasan, Y., & Schweizer, S. (2026) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/94753
- Authors
- Dunn, J. C., Whelton, W. J., & Sharpe, D.
- Affiliations
- University of Alberta (CA)
- University of Regina (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Whelton, William J.
- Venue
- Evolution and Human Behavior
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-11
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 746-758
- ISSN
- 1090-5138 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1971717382
- Cited by
- 17
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 1.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Evolution and Human Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- mild to moderate depression, rejection sensitivity, secure attachment, social comparison, defeat, submissiveness, interpersonal sensitivity, self-esteem, sense of belonging, social risk
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review