Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.

Heatherton, Todd F.; Polivy, Janet

doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.895

Cited by 2,007Personality Traits and PsychologyPsychometric Methodologies and TestingPsychological Testing and Assessment

Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.

Heatherton, Todd F., Polivy, Janet·1991·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.895

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Abstract

This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem. There has been a resurgence of interest in examining whether aspects of the self-concept are stable or malleable (Markus & Kunda, 1986). On the one hand, there is considerable evidence that the self-concept is persistent and stable and that people will actively seek information that confirms their self-concept and reject information that threatens their general view of self

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The internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) of the SSES in this study was 0.85.
“In this study, the internal consistency (Cronbach α at baseline) was 0.85 for the overall scale.”
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Background
Whistle While You Work
Erdoğan, B., Bauer, T. N., Truxillo, D. M., & Mansfield, L. R. (2012) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206311429379 · Cited by 804 · see citing works
“It has been recognized that selfesteem has a state component (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
Background
Set like plaster? Evidence for the stability of adult personality.
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1994) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10143-002 · Cited by 769 · see citing works
Cell-phone addiction: a review
De-Sola Gutiérrez, J., Rodríguez de Fonseca, F., & Rubio, G. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00175 · Cited by 722 · see citing works
“Notably, self-esteem can change according to context and time and can be considered to be a state (131) that is amenable to contextual cell-phone use (127).”
Background
“Exercise to be fit, not skinny,”: the effect of fitspiration imagery on women's body image
Tiggemann, M., & Zaccardo, M. (2015) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.06.003 · Cited by 737 · see citing works
Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others.
Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.1.31 · Cited by 1,047 · see citing works
In the wake of 9/11: The psychology of terror.
Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2003) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10478-000 · Cited by 671 · see citing works
Implicit Self-Theories in the Academic Domain: Implications for Goal Orientation, Attributions, Affect, and Self-Esteem Change
Robins, R. W., & Pals, J. L. (2002) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860290106805 · Cited by 644 · see citing works
“Thus, the college experience does not seem to produce normative change in implicit self-theories, despite a dramatic shift in what Hormuth (1990) referred to as the ``ecology of the self.”
Background
Identity-based consumer behavior
Reed, A., Forehand, M., Puntoni, S., & Warlop, L. (2012) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2012.08.002 · Cited by 658 · see citing works
Pride and perseverance: The motivational role of pride.
Williams, L. A., & DeSteno, D. A. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1007 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
“Self-esteem was assessed using the Performance subscale of the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
The relationship between social connectedness and anxiety, self-esteem, and social identity.
Lee, R. M., & Robbins, S. B. (1998) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.45.3.338 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
God and the government: Testing a compensatory control mechanism for the support of external systems
Kay, A. C., Gaucher, D., Napier, J. L., Callan, M. J., & Laurin, K. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.18 · Cited by 809 · see citing works
Female role models: protecting women's math test performance
Marx, D. M., & Roman, J. S. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672022812004 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
“After taking the math test, performance state self-esteem was measured using the performance subscale from the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
MethodResult
Revision and extension of a multidimensional measure of sexual minority identity: The Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identity Scale.
Mohr, J. J., & Kendra, M. S. (2011) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022858 · Cited by 615 · see citing works
Fundamental dimensions of subjective state in performance settings: Task engagement, distress, and worry.
Matthews, G., Campbell, S. E., Falconer, S., Joyner, L. A., Huggins, J., Gilliland, K., Grier, R. A., & Warm, J. S. (2002) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.2.4.315 · Cited by 596 · see citing works
Morality and competence in person- and self-perception
Wojciszke, B. (2005) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280500229619 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
“( Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ); and in one sample the preference of own initials over other letters of the alphabet was used as an implicit measure of self-esteem (Koole & Pelham, 2003).”
Method
Influence of parasocial relationship between digital celebrities and their followers on followers’ purchase and electronic word-of-mouth intentions, and persuasion knowledge
Hwang, K., & Zhang, Q. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.029 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
Personality Traits
Matthews, G., Deary, I. J., & Whiteman, M. C. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511812736 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Mere Belonging: The Power of Social Connections
Walton, G. M., Cohen, G. L., Cwir, D., & Spencer, S. J. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025731 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
“…r .42, p .001), (c) self-efficacy in math (two items, e.g., “I feel confident that I understand things in math”; 1 strongly disagree, 7 strongly agree; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; r .31, p .009), (d) interest in math (five items, e.g., “How interested would you be in learning more about…”
Background
Who compares and despairs? The effect of social comparison orientation on social media use and its outcomes
Vogel, E. A., Rose, J. P., Okdie, B. M., Eckles, K., & Franz, B. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.026 · Cited by 545 · see citing works
Compensatory conviction in the face of personal uncertainty: Going to extremes and being oneself.
McGregor, I., Zanna, M. P., Holmes, J. G., & Spencer, S. J. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.472 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
Stability of self-esteem across the life span.
Trzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., & Robins, R. W. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.205 · Cited by 807 · see citing works
“Reflecting these various perspectives, Heatherton and Polivy (1991) developed a state self-esteem scale for use in research on short-term changes in self-esteem, and Rosenberg (1965) created a scale that assesses the degree to which a person’s self-esteem remains stable over time.”
Background
Acute Threat to the Social Self: Shame, Social Self-esteem, and Cortisol Activity
Gruenewald, T. L., Kemeny, M. E., Aziz, N., & Fahey, J. L. (2004) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000143639.61693.ef · Cited by 515 · see citing works
“The social and performance subscales of the State Self-Esteem Scale (39) were also administered before and after the performance tasks.”
Method
Social Exclusion and the Deconstructed State: Time Perception, Meaninglessness, Lethargy, Lack of Emotion, and Self-Awareness.
Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.409 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
“In addition, we administered the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991 ) to test for mediation by state self-esteem.”
MethodInfluential
The Conceptualization and Measurement of Perceived Wellness: Integrating Balance across and within Dimensions
Adams, T. B., Bezner, J. R., & Steinhardt, M. A. (1997) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-11.3.208 · Cited by 512 · see citing works
Rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: a meta-analytic review of 192 studies on social exclusion
Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309346065 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
“Subjective impressions of changes in self-esteem have prompted the development of state self-esteem scales (e.g., Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), which supposedly register temporary fluctuations in response to recent events and outcomes.”
Method
On Being Rejected: A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Research on Rejection
Gerber, J., & Wheeler, L. (2009) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01158.x · Cited by 498 · see citing works
“The scales used included McFarland and Ross’s (1982) self-esteem scale, and Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state self-esteem scale.”
Method
Tai chi on psychological well-being: systematic review and meta-analysis
Wang, C., Bannuru, R., Ramel, J., Kupelnick, B., Scott, T., & Schmid, C. H. (2010) · BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1186/1472-6882-10-23 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
“Among the measurements employed were: Rosenberg's 10-item Global Self-Esteem Scale [79], the Chinese version of the State Self-Esteem Scale [80], Sonstroem Physical Examination Scale [81] and the Body Cathexis Score [82].”
Method
Role of hope in academic and sport achievement.
Curry, L. A., Snyder, C. R. R., Cook, D. L., Ruby, B. C., & Rehm, M. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.73.6.1257 · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Coping with Negative Stereotypes about Intellectual Performance: The Role of Psychological Disengagement
Major, B., Spencer, S. J., Schmader, T., Wolfe, C., & Crocker, J. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167298241003 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Dynamics of multiple-goal pursuit.
Louro, M. J., Pieters, R., & Zeelenberg, M. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.2.174 · Cited by 465 · see citing works
Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women's performance.
Dardenne, B., Dumont, M., & Bollier, T. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.764 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
“Similarly, our results nicely fit Jackman’s (1994) velvet glove theory as well as Benokraitis’s (1997) propositions about the effectiveness of “sweet” discrimination in maintaining gender status inequities.”
BackgroundResult
The impact of appearance comparisons made through social media, traditional media, and in person in women’s everyday lives
Fardouly, J., Pinkus, R. T., & Vartanian, L. R. (2016) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.11.002 · Cited by 479 · see citing works
“Appearance satisfaction was measured with items drawn from the Appearance subscale of the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
Method
Protecting the self through consumption: Status goods as affirmational commodities
Sivanathan, N., & Pettit, N. C. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.01.006 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
“Self-threat was manipulated through performance feedback that was either threatening or non-threatening to one’s self-worth (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; McQueen & Klein, 2006).”
Method
Social Identity Theory's Self-Esteem Hypothesis: A Review and Some Suggestions for Clarification
Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_3 · Cited by 689 · see citing works
Group Identification Moderates Emotional Responses to Perceived Prejudice
McCoy, S. K., & Major, B. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203253466 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
“Participants completed a brief fiveitem measure of state self-esteem adapted from the social and performance subscales of Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) scale (“I feel confident about my abilities”; “I am worried about what other people think of me”; “I feel frustrated or rattled by my performance”; “I feel that I hav…”
Method
The Costs of Accepting Gender Differences: The Role of Stereotype Endorsement in Women's Experience in the Math Domain
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Barquissau, M. (2004) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000029101.74557.a0 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
The stigma of overweight: Affective consequences of attributional ambiguity.
Crocker, J., Cornwell, B., & Major, B. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.64.1.60 · Cited by 431 · see citing works
I’ll Have What She’s Having: Effects of Social Influence and Body Type on the Food Choices of Others
McFerran, B., Dahl, D. W., Fitzsimons, G. J., & Morales, A. C. (2009) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/644611 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
The four pillars of tertiary student engagement and success: a holistic measurement approach
Bowden, J., Tickle, L., & Naumann, K. (2019) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2019.1672647 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
“It includes perceptions of; pride; control; success; efficacy; social respect and acceptance; teacher approval; and confidence in their ability to meet clear goals during tertiary study and beyond degree completion (Heatherton and Polivy 1991).”
Background
Acceptance of cosmetic surgery: Scale development and validation
Henderson-King, D. H., & Henderson-King, E. I. (2005) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.03.003 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
Can the Media Affect Us? Social Comparison, Self-Discrepancy, and the Thin Ideal
Bessenoff, G. R. (2006) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00292.x · Cited by 412 · see citing works
“The 20-item scale by Heatherton and Polivy (1991) was used to assess three subareas of self-esteem: seven questions related to appearance selfesteem (e.g., “I am pleased with my appearance”), seven questions related to social self-esteem (e.g., “I worry about what other people think of me”), and…”
Method
The thrill of victory, the complexity of defeat: Self-esteem and people's emotional reactions to success and failure.
Brown, J. D., & Dutton, K. A. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.68.4.712 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
The cessation of rumination through self-affirmation.
Koole, S. L., Smeets, K., van Knippenberg, A., & Dijksterhuis, A. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.111 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Defensiveness Versus Remediation: Self-Theories and Modes of Self-Esteem Maintenance
Nussbaum, A. D., & Dweck, C. S. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207312960 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
“In keeping with Heckhausen and Schulz’s (1995) contention that people generally resort to indirect psychological adjustment (secondary control) only when they perceive a direct option (primary control) to be impractical, we propose that people tend to respond defensively to negative feedback primarily when they percei…”
BackgroundMethod
Excuse Me—What Did You Just Say?!: Women's Public and Private Responses to Sexist Remarks
Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (1999) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1370 · Cited by 387 · see citing works
Assessing Three Sources of Misresponse to Reversed Likert Items
Swain, S. D., Weathers, D., & Niedrich, R. W. (2008) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.45.1.116 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Calibrating the sociometer: The relationship between interpersonal appraisals and the state self-esteem.
Leary, M. R., Haupt, A. L., Strausser, K. S., & Chokel, J. T. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1290 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Breaking Them in or Eliciting Their Best? Reframing Socialization around Newcomers’ Authentic Self-expression
Cable, D. M., Francesca Gino, B., & Staats, B. R. (2013) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0001839213477098 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
“We measured self-esteem with six items from Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state self-esteem scale (e.”
Method
Social identities promote well‐being because they satisfy global psychological needs
Greenaway, K. H., Cruwys, T., Haslam, S. A., & Jetten, J. (2015) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2169 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
When forgiving enhances psychological well-being: The role of interpersonal commitment.
Karremans, J. C., Lange, P. A. M. V., Ouwerkerk, J. W., & Kluwer, E. S. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1011 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
“Finally, self-esteem was assessed with the State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991); this instrument also exhibited high internal consistency (␣ ϭ .92).”
Method
Thine own self: True self-concept accessibility and meaning in life
Schlegel, R. J., Hicks, J. A., Arndt, J., & King, L. A. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014060 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
“Participants also completed the 20-item State Self-Esteem Scale, which has been argued to be sensitive to transient changes in self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
On judging and being judged accurately in zero-acquaintance situations.
Ambady, N., Hallahan, M., & Rosenthal, R. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.3.518 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
What is good mental health? A scoping review
Fusar-Poli, P., Salazar de Pablo, G., De Micheli, A., Nieman, D. H., Correll, C. U., Kessing, L. V., Pfennig, A., Bechdolf, A., Borgwardt, S., Arango, C., et al. (2020) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2019.12.105 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Why minority group members perceive or do not perceive the discrimination that confronts them: The role of self-esteem and perceived control.
Ruggiero, K. M., & Taylor, D. M. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.72.2.373 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Regulatory Mode: Locomotion and Assessment as Distinct Orientations
Higgins, E. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Pierro, A. (2003) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(03)01005-0 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
Comparing to perfection: How cultural norms for appearance affect social comparisons and self-image
Strahan, E. J., Wilson, A. E., Cressman, K. E., & Buote, V. M. (2006) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.07.004 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
“Self-esteem We measured self-esteem (SE) with an adapted (slightly shortened) version of Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) state self-esteem scale.”
Method
Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: Impact of group identification and situational ambiguity
Major, B., Quinton, W. J., & Schmader, T. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(02)00547-4 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Exploring the relationship between frequency of Instagram use, exposure to idealized images, and psychological well-being in women
Sherlock, M., & Wagstaff, D. L. (2019) · Psychology of Popular Media Culture · doi:10.1037/ppm0000182 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Stereotype threat spillover: How coping with threats to social identity affects aggression, eating, decision making, and attention.
Inzlicht, M., & Kang, S. K. (2010) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018951 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
“…on the academic test, participants completed the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and measures of the performance component of the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) to assess current mood and state self-esteem, respectively.”
Method
Making Sense of Procedural Fairness: How High Procedural Fairness Can Reduce or Heighten the Influence of Outcome Favorability
Brockner, J. (2002) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2002.5922363 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
“People's temporary evaluation of themselves, known as state self-esteem (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991), was the dependent variable.”
The Effects of Perspective-Taking on Prejudice: The Moderating Role of Self-Evaluation
Galinsky, A. D., & Ku, G. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203262802 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
INTERPERSONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE SELF-ESTEEM MOTIVE THE SELF-ESTEEM SYSTEM AS A SOCIOMETER
Leary, M. R., & Downs, D. L. (1995) · Cited by 329 · see citing works
A Meta-Analytic Review of Stand-Alone Interventions to Improve Body Image
Alleva, J. M., Sheeran, P., Webb, T. L., Martijn, C., & Miles, E. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0139177 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
“39 = Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS, [105]); 40 = Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents [106]: Physical Appearance Subscale; 41 = State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES, [107]): Appearance Subscale;”
Background
Integrating cognitive and motivational factors in depression: Initial tests of a goal-orientation approach.
Dykman, B. M. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.139 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: Implications for self-esteem.
Major, B., Kaiser, C. R., O’Brien, L. T., & McCoy, S. K. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1068 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
“Self-esteem was assessed with the 10item Rosenberg Global Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1979) as well as the 7-item Social Self-Esteem subscale and the 7-item Performance Self-Esteem subscale of Heatherton and Polivy’s (1991) State Self-Esteem Scale.”
Method
Inclusion: Conceptualization and measurement
Jansen, W. S., Otten, S., van der Zee, K. I., & Jans, L. (2014) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2011 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
“Wemeasured state self-esteem with seven items from the original 20-item scale of Heatherton and Polivy (1991).”
BackgroundMethod
"I Am Us": Negative Stereotypes as Collective Threats.
Cohen, G. L., & Garcia, J. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.566 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
“We used the complete Performance and Social State Self- Esteem subscales rather than only the five items selected from those scales in Experiment 1 (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991).”
Method
From the top down: Self-esteem and self-evaluation
Brown, J. D., Dutton, K. A., & Cook, K. E. (2001) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930126063 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
“Some researchers believe this problem can be overcome by experimentally manipulating self-esteem (e.g., Arndt & Greenberg, 1999; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; Leary et al., 1995).”
Background
A systematic review and meta-analysis of ‘Systems for Social Processes' in eating disorders
Caglar-Nazali, H. P., Corfield, F., Cardi, V., Ambwani, S., Leppanen, J., Olabintan, O., Deriziotis, S., Hadjimichalis, A., Scognamiglio, P., Eshkevari, E., et al. (2014) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.002 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Engaging the unmotivated in treatment for alcohol problems: A comparison of three strategies for intervention through family members.
Miller, W. R., Meyers, R. J., & Tonigan, J. S. (1999) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.67.5.688 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Engaging the unmotivated in treatment for alcohol problems: A comparison of three strategies for intervention through family members.
Miller, W. R., Meyers, R. J., & Tonigan, J. S. (1999) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.67.5.688 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Self-Esteem and Emotion: Some Thoughts about Feelings
Brown, J. D., & Marshall, M. A. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201275006 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
“As first noted by William James (1890), some emotions always describe how people feel about themselves.”
Background
Global self-esteem in relation to structural models of personality and affectivity
Watson, D., Suls, J., & Haig, J. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.185 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Internalized Societal Attitudes Moderate the Impact of Weight Stigma on Avoidance of Exercise
Vartanian, L. R., & Novak, S. A. (2011) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2010.234 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
“Participants also completed the Current Thoughts Scale (31), a 20-item measure that assesses state self-esteem across three domains (social, performance, and appearance).”
Preferences of High- and Low-hope People for Self-referential Input
Snyder, C. R. R., LaPointe, A. B., Crowson, J. J., & Early, S. (1998) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999398379448 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Social surrogacy: How favored television programs provide the experience of belonging
Derrick, J. L., Gabriel, S., & Hugenberg, K. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.12.003 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
“Second, participants completed the Heatherton and Polivy (1991) measure of state self-esteem (a = .88).”
Background

Measuring the General and Specific Domains of Self-Esteem: The Short-form of the State Self-Esteem Scale
Brito, T. R. D. S., Pereira, C. R., dos Santos, F. Á., & Nery, N. N. D. F. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221077909 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
I Like Myself, I Really Do (at Least Right Now)
Rudolph, A., Schröder–Abé, M., & Schütz, A. (2018) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000501 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
State Self-Esteem Scale
Jordan, C. H. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1189
Measuring the General and Specific Domains of Self-EsteemPreprint
Pereira, C. R., Nery, N. N. D. F., Brito, T. R. D. S., & dos Santos, F. Á. (2020) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Measurement of state self-esteem using the Two-Item Self-Esteem scale (TISE): Development and validation
Minoura, Y., & Narita, K. (2016) · JAPANESE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON EMOTIONS · doi:10.4092/jsre.23.2_78 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Authors: Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J.
Affiliations: Harvard University (US)
ORCID: Heatherton, Todd F.
Polivy, Janet
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1991-06
Volume: 60
Issue: 6
Pages: 895-910
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.895
OpenAlex: W1984877678
Cited by: 2,007
References: 79
Citations by year: 2026: 58 · 2025: 63 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 83 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 101 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 85 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 74 · 2012: 82
FWCI: 9.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Keywords: state self-esteem, self-esteem measurement, scale development, performance self-esteem, social self-esteem, appearance self-esteem, manipulation checks, self-concept stability

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Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem.

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