Spatiotemporal patterns of lithium mining and environmental degradation in the Atacama Salt Flat, Chile
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The chemicals used for precipitation and the waste produced by this process have raised many socioenvironmental concerns.
“Furthermore, the chemicals used for precipitation and the waste produced by this process have raised many socioenvironmental concerns (Anlauf, 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Dorn et al., 2020).”
From A review of technologies for direct lithium extraction from low Li+ concentration aqueous solutions (2022) · cites this paper as Liu et al., 2019
A study in the Salar de Atacama, Chile, has found fast expansion of lithium mining operations to have a strong correlation with the ongoing environmental degradation in the area.
“a study in the Salar de Atacama, Chile, has found fast expansion of lithium mining operations to have a strong correlation with the ongoing environmental degradation in the area (Liu et al. 2019).”
From The arid Andean plateau waterscapes and the lithium triangle: flamingos as flagships for conservation of high-altitude wetlands under pressure from mining development (2022) · cites this paper as Liu et al. 2019
While lithium extraction may be promoted as good for the environment and for certain economies, we are already aware that there have been negative impacts, both environmental and social, associated with the development of this sector in the region.
“While lithium extraction may be promoted as good for the environment and for certain economies, we are already aware that there have been negative impacts, both environmental and social, associated with the development of this sector in the region (Liu etal. 2019; Marchegiani etal. 2018, 2020).”
From The arid Andean plateau waterscapes and the lithium triangle: flamingos as flagships for conservation of high-altitude wetlands under pressure from mining development (2022) · cites this paper as Liu et al. 2019
Lithium mining has significantly increased over the last two decades, quadrupling the surface area of its operations in the Salar de Atacama from 20.54 km2 in 1997 to 80.53 km2 in 2017.
“Lithium mining has significantly increased over the last two decades, quadrupling the surface area of its operations in the SdA from 20.54 km 2 in 1997 to 80.53 km 2 in 2017 (Liu et al., 2019).”
From Mining indigenous territories: Consensus, tensions and ambivalences in the Salar de Atacama (2022) · cites this paper as Liu et al., 2019
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Environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines
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Self-citationA review of technologies for direct lithium extraction from low Li+ concentration aqueous solutions
Murphy, O., & Haji, M. N. (2022) · Frontiers in Chemical Engineering · doi:10.3389/fceng.2022.1008680 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the chemicals used for precipitation and the waste produced by this process have raised many socioenvironmental concerns (Anlauf, 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Dorn et al., 2020).”
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“Environmentalists argue that habitats of species such as Andean flamingoes are disrupted by mining operations [71].”
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“…affects the hydrogeological systems with 73 wetland and lake ecosystems at the Salar de Atacama but these direct and indirect effects of brine pumping 74 are only measurable by assessing the hydrogeology of these salt flats (Liu et al., 2019; Liu and Agusdinata, 75 2021; Marazuela et al., 2019).”
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“To avoid redox-reactions, NaCl is an ideal reagent to recover LiCl and NaFePO4 and finally to precipitate Li2CO3 in an acid-free procedure (Liu et al. 2019c).”
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“In addition to our findings, other studies have already indicated that lithium mining is impacting the livelihoods of local people across the Lithium Triangle [29,31].”
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“This is significant because, despite very recent independent scientific attention (e.g. Liu et al. 2019) the Salar's ecological present is still a matter of fragmentation and disorder.”
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“While lithium extraction may be promoted as good for the environment and for certain economies, we are already aware that there have been negative impacts, both environmental and social, associated with the development of this sector in the region (Liu et al. 2019; Marchegiani et al. 2018, 2020).”
BackgroundLithium brine mining affects geodiversity and Sustainable Development Goals
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“Particularly after the new millennium, high freshwater and underground water uses of the production facilities were scrutinised by the communities who reside close-by or share overlapping territories with resource frontiers (Prieto, 2016; Agusdinata et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2019).”
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Sustainable/responsible mining and ethical issues related to the Sustainable Development Goals
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“…impacts of lithium mining, although there are significant concerns about the impacts on salt-lake ecosystems, climate, hydrology and communities (e.g. Liu et al. 2019; Liu and Agusdinata 2020; Marazuela et al. 2020), as well as the extensive manufacturing requirements (e.g. Vandepaer et al. 2017).”
BackgroundLithium and water: Hydrosocial impacts across the life cycle of energy storage
Blair, J. J. A., Vineyard, N., Mulvaney, D., Cantor, A., Sharbat, A., Berry, K., Bartholomew, E., & Ornelas, A. F. (2024) · WIREs Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1748 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…are interconnected and hydrodynamic rather than static, so concerns remain about the potential depletion of fresh groundwater flowing into salt flats in place of pumped brine (Agusdinata et al., 2018; Alam & Sepúlveda, 2022; Liu et al., 2019; Liu & Agusdinata, 2021; Schomberg & Bringezu, 2023).”
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“● Post-viral arthralgia (Liu et al., 2019; Tappe et al., 2017) ● Lyme disease (Speldewinde, Slaney, and Weinstein, 2015; Stanek,”
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WATER MINING AND EXTRACTIVISM OF THE SALAR DE ATACAMA, CHILE
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“Recent studies with satellite images and spectroradiometry show the increase in the loss of vegetation in the Salar in the last 20 years as a result of the extraction of its brines [40], [41].”
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Flores Fernández, C., & Alba, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Water · doi:10.3389/frwa.2023.1075139 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“The shortcomings of the current way of understanding the functioning andwater balances of the salt flats and ecosystems and the impact of lithium mining have been criticized and demonstrated (SMA, 2016; First Environmental Court, 2019; Liu et al., 2019; DGA, 2021a; Gutiérrez et al., 2022).”
BackgroundAssessing Critical Raw Materials and Their Supply Risk in Energy Technologies—A Literature Review
Montana, F., Cellura, M., Silvestre, M. L. D., Longo, S., Luu, L. Q., Sanseverino, E. R., & Sciumè, G. (2024) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en18010086 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Sustainable production of lithium salts extraction from ores in China: Cleaner production assessment
Gu, G., & Gao, T. (2021) · Resources Policy · doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102261 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Agusdinata, D. B., Liu, W., Sulistyo, S. R., Billon, P. L., & Wegner, J. (2022) · Journal of Industrial Ecology · doi:10.1111/jiec.13317 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationChávez, R. O., Meseguer-Ruiz, Ó., Olea, M., Seguel, M. C., Yager, K., Meneses, R. I., Lastra, J. A., Núñez‐Hidalgo, I., Sarricolea, P., Serrano‐Notivoli, R., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation · doi:10.1016/j.jag.2022.103138 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The ‘Alterlives’ of Green Extractivism: Lithium Mining and Exhausted Ecologies in the Atacama Desert
Blair, J. J. A., Balcazar, R., Barandiarán, J., & Maxwell, A. (2023) · International development policy/Revue internationale de politique de développement · doi:10.4000/poldev.5284 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Endangered <i>Salares</i> : micro-disasters in Northern Chile
Bonelli, C., & Dorador, C. (2021) · Tapuya: Latin American Science, Technology and Society · doi:10.1080/25729861.2021.1968634 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Water footprint of battery-grade lithium production in the Salar de Atacama, Chile
Marinova, S., Roche, L., Link, A., & Finkbeiner, M. (2025) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.144635 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Reyers, M., Böhm, C., Knarr, L., Shao, Y., & Crewell, S. (2020) · Monthly Weather Review · doi:10.1175/mwr-d-20-0038.1 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…for surface layer physics (Janjić 1994), the Pleim–Xiu Land Surface Model (Xiu and Pleim 2001), the Mellor– Yamada–Janjić Scheme for the planetary boundary layer (Janjić 1994), and the modified Kain–Fritsch cumulus Unauthenticated | Downloaded 12/04/21 02:45 AM UTC scheme (Ma and Tan 2009).”
MethodUse of Alternative Water Resources in Copper Leaching Processes in Chilean Mining Industry—A Review
Toro, N., Gálvez, E. D., Robles, P. A., Castillo, J., Villca, G., & Salinas‐Rodríguez, E. (2022) · Metals · doi:10.3390/met12030445 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Arrúa, E. C., Bedogni, G., Salomon, C. J., & Flexer, V. (2024) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2024.117741 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Wolters, L., & Brusselaers, J. (2024) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2024.101498 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Estimated public health benefits of a low-emission zone in Malmö, Sweden
Flanagan, E., Malmqvist, E., Gustafsson, S., & Oudin, A. (2022) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2022.114124 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Lunde Seefeldt, J. (2022) · Latin American Policy · doi:10.1111/lamp.12265 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
de Souza, R. G., Domingues, A. M., Spindlegger, A., Mair‐Bauernfeind, C., & Part, F. (2024) · Sustainable Production and Consumption · doi:10.1016/j.spc.2024.11.031 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Mirages or miracles? Lithium extraction and the just energy transition
Dowling, C., & Otero, G. (2024) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2024.103862 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Water legislation in the context of lithium mining in Argentina
Steinmetz, R. L. L., & Fong, S. B. (2019) · Resources Policy · doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101510 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Stefanović, N., Hristić, N. D., & Petrić, J. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su15021736 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
van Pampus, M., Hogenboom, B., Hoorn, C., & Seijmonsbergen, A. C. (2023) · Evolving Earth · doi:10.1016/j.eve.2023.100024 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Substitution, natural capital and sustainability
Reijnders, L. (2021) · Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences · doi:10.1080/1943815x.2021.2007133 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The calm before the storm? The making of a lithium frontier in transitioning Portugal
Silva, L., & Sareen, S. (2023) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2023.101308 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Köppel, J., & Scoville-Simonds, M. (2023) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2023.101376 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Wang, R., Sheng, M., Liu, X., Wang, Q., Wang, Z., & Wang, L. A. (2025) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5c13571 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Climate change and water justice
Mills‐Novoa, M., Boelens, R., & Hoogesteger, J. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99875-8.00014-8 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Se instaló el diablo en el Salar”
Lorca, M., Andrade, M. O., & Garcés, I. (2023) · Estudios Atacameños Arqueología y antropología surandinas · doi:10.22199/issn.0718-1043-2023-0004 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Freshwater inflows to closed basins of the Andean plateau in Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia
Kirshen, A., Moran, B., Munk, L., Russo, A. A., McKnight, S., Jenckes, J., Corkran, D., Bresee, M., & Boutt, D. F. (2025) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-025-02130-6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Liu, W., & Agusdinata, D. B. (2021) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2021.100927 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationGlobal detection of aridification or increasing wetness in arid regions from 2001 to 2013
Kimura, R. (2020) · Natural Hazards · doi:10.1007/s11069-020-04080-y · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Geo-environmental factors’ influence on mining operation: an indirect effect of managerial factors
Mishra, P. C., Panigrahi, R. R., & Shrivastava, A. K. (2023) · Environment Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-023-03211-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“This remark indicates that the importance of both geo-environmental concerns and managerial concerns are top priorities for the mining sector, as well as its operational activities (Liu et al., 2019; Mishra & Mohanty, 2020; Sonter et al., 2018).”
Complex Ecosystem Impact of Rapid Expansion of Industrial and Mining Land on the Tibetan Plateau
Liu, Q., Wang, X., Zhang, Y., & Li, S. (2022) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs14040872 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“This results in serious health problems due to the expansion of lithium and coal mining [60].”
BackgroundCousins, J. J., Cantor, A., & Turley, B. (2024) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Water · doi:10.1002/wat2.1751 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The saline ecosystems where lithium is found often have unique biodiversity value (Gajardo & Red (cid:1) on, 2019), and lithium extraction is a major contributor to local environmental degradation (Liu et al., 2019).”
Will electro-mobility encourage injustices? The case of lithium production in the Argentine Puna
Escosteguy, M., Paz, W. F. D., Iribarnegaray, M. A., Clavijo, A., Insaurralde, C. O., Stern, H., Venencia, C. D., Brannstrom, C., Hufty, M., & Seghezzo, L. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822796-1.00024-3 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Namaganda, E., Otsuki, K., & Steel, G. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117811 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Liu, F., Elliott, J. R., Ebmeier, S. K., Craig, T. J., Hooper, A. J., Lizama, C. N., & Delgado, F. (2023) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2022gl102480 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Sálica, M. J., Gastón, M. S., Akmentins, M. S., & Vaira, M. (2023) · Aquatic Conservation Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems · doi:10.1002/aqc.4044 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Blair, J. J. A., Gutierrez, G., & Balcázar, M. R. (2023) · Human Organization · doi:10.17730/1938-3525-82.3.288 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Kabiraj, S., Duraisekaran, E., & Ramaswamy, M. (2022) · Environmental Earth Sciences · doi:10.1007/s12665-022-10338-4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The COOL Process: A Holistic Approach Towards Lithium Recycling
Mende, R., Kaiser, D., Pavón, S., & Bertau, M. (2023) · Waste and Biomass Valorization · doi:10.1007/s12649-023-02043-5 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Sustainability challenges of clean-energy critical minerals: copper and rare earths
Paleologos, E. K., Mohamed, A. O., Singh, D. N., O’Kelly, B. C., Gamal, M. M. E., Mohammad, A. F., Singh, P., Goli, V. S. N. S., Roque, A. J., Oke, J. A., et al. (2024) · Environmental Geotechnics · doi:10.1680/jenge.23.00062 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Brett‐Adams, A. C., Holley, E., Deberdt, R., Fahle, L., & Smith, N. (2025) · Resources Policy · doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2025.105599 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Collado, G. A., Torres‐Díaz, C., Vidal, M. A., & Valladares, M. A. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12060791 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Recent studies indicate that significant environmental degradation related to mining activity has occurred in the saltpan over the last 20 years [25,26].”
BackgroundEvolution of the Surface Area of Critical Lagoon Systems in the Salar de Atacama
Ignacio Guzmán, J., Retamal, C., Faúndez, P., & Joaquín Jara, J. (2022) · Natural Resources Research · doi:10.1007/s11053-022-10070-7 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“During the past years, environmental concerns have emerged regarding the impact that the exploitation of lithium and other products has had on water resources in these areas (Collazo Urrutia, 2017; Gutiérrez et al., 2018; Jerez Henrı́quez, 2018; Liu et al., 2019; Baspineiro et al., 2020).”
BackgroundEndl, A., Gottenhuber, S., & Gugerell, K. (2023) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2023.101320 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…2013; Poelzer et al., 2022a; Poelzer et al., 2022b; Lesser et al., 2022; Boutilier, 2021), environmental degradation (Cabernard and Pfister, 2022; Liu et al., 2019; Sonter et al., 2020; Murguía et al., 2016), competing interests, and policy incoherence and/or inconsistency with other policy…”
Roa, D., Ståle Navrud, A., & Rosendahl, K. E. (2023) · Resource and Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.reseneeco.2023.101389 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Valladares, M. A., Fabres, A. A., Collado, G. A., Sáez, P. A., & Méndez, M. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.3389/fevo.2022.869626 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…during the last 20 years, there has been a significant degradation of saltpan ecosystems, and these changes have been reflected in a decline in vegetation cover, an increase in temperature, a decrease in soil moisture and an intensification of drought conditions in these systems (Liu et al., 2019).”
BackgroundLithium—Occurrence and Exposure—A Review
Sager, M. (2025) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics13070567 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The concentrated brine is then transported to Antofagasta to produce Li 2 CO 3 [10].”
InfluentialM․, R. B., & Argento, M. (2025) · The Extractive Industries and Society · doi:10.1016/j.exis.2025.101724 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Solid–liquid extraction of lithium chloride with a simple and flexible heteroditopic receptor
Mimuro, T., Yoshino, S., Hirasawa, M., & Kondo, S. (2025) · Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan · doi:10.1093/bulcsj/uoaf002 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Beyond carbon: Environmental and social impacts of Japan's vehicle electrification transition
Rinawati, D. I., Keeley, A. R., Itsubo, N., & Managi, S. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.125509 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Density Constrains Environmental Impacts of Fluid Abstraction in Closed‐Basin Lithium Brines
Corkran, D., Boutt, D. F., Munk, L., Moran, B., McKnight, S., Jenckes, J., & Kirshen, A. (2025) · Water Resources Research · doi:10.1029/2024wr039511 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“While conflicting studies by sustainability researchers (Liu et al., 2019) and conservation biologists (Gutiérrez et al., 2022) correlate wetland impacts with brine abstraction, they do not demonstrate a causal relationship, making those studies incapable of differentiating concurrent climate and…”
Grimal, L., Loreto, I. D., Burger, N., & Troussier, N. (2021) · doi:10.21428/bf6fb269.2ee80cf1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“To illustrate this point, we make a short focus on the example of lithium, a material coming mainly from South America, more precisely from Chile (38% of the world’s reserves) [17].”
BackgroundComber, R., & Eriksson, E. (2023) · doi:10.21428/bf6fb269.9fcdd0c0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Smart clothing in communication technology—recent development
Kothawale, A. S., Mohite, V. S., Darade, M. M., Deshmukh, S., Mondal, M. I. H., & Pawar, S. H. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15471-3.00001-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Derlindati, E. J., Arengo, F., Michelutti, M. P., Romano, M. C., Sosa, H., Ortiz, E. P., Rocha, O., Jahn, A. E., Chanampa, M. M., & Barberis, I. M. (2024) · Bird Conservation International · doi:10.1017/s0959270924000273 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Mining lithium impacts wetlands directly in terms of habitat loss, conversion, and degradation (Garcés and Álvarez 2020; Liu et al. 2019; Sticco 2021), and sustained extraction of groundwater and surface water will likely affect hydrological balance, chemical composition, and ultimately the rich…”
From devastation to restoration: Charting the course towards sustainable mining practices
Yu, H., Zahidi, I., Fai, C. M., & Liang, D. (2025) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.126660 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Participatory Democratic Innovations in Southeast Europe
Fiket, I., Markov, Č., Ilić, V., & Draško, G. P. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003426103 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Link, A., Marinova, S., Roche, L., Coroamă, V., Hinkers, L., Borchardt, D., & Finkbeiner, M. (2025) · Water · doi:10.3390/w17223311 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Liu, W., Agusdinata, D. B., & Myint, S. W.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Agusdinata, Datu B.
- Venue
- International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-08
- Volume
- 80
- Pages
- 145-156
- ISSN
- 0303-2434 (ISSN-L)
- 1569-8432
- OpenAlex
- W2943645630
- Cited by
- 162
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 141.82
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Law › Geology and Environmental Impact Studies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Mining and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Environmental and Biological Research in Conflict Zones
- Keywords
- lithium mining, environmental degradation, spatiotemporal variation, NDVI decline, land surface temperature, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, drought, lithium battery industry, mining impacts, national reserves
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