Combined effect of xanthan gum and water content on physicochemical and textural properties of gluten-free batter and bread

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Cornejo & Rosell (2015) obtained, for gluten-free bread elaborated with different long grain rice flours, lower hardness (361-1105 g) and springiness (0.68-0.80), and similar resilience (0.20-0.35), chewiness (914-2066 g) and cohesiveness (0.44-0.67) compared with this study.

“Although not directly comparable with this study, Cornejo & Rosell (Cornejo & Rosell, 2015) obtained, for GF bread elaborated with different long grain rice flours, lower values for hardness (ranged from 361 to 1105 g) and springiness (ranged from 0.68 to 0.80), and similar values for resilience (from 0.20 to 0.35), chewiness (from 914 to 2066 g) and cohesiveness (from 0.44 to 0.67).”

• cites Cornejo & Rosell, 2015 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cohesiveness characterises the extent to which a material can be deformed before it ruptures and reflects the internal cohesion of the material.

“As reported by Onyango et al. (Onyango, Mutungi, Unbehend, & Lindhauer, 2011), cohesiveness characterises the extent to which a material can be deformed before it ruptures; and reflects the internal cohesion of the material.”

• cites Onyango, Mutungi, Unbehend, & Lindhauer, 2011 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Onyango et al. (2011) obtained, for gluten-free bread elaborated with different rice, cassava, potato and maize starches-sorghum ratios, comparable firmness (760-4862 g) and chewiness (666-2383 g), but higher cohesiveness (0.563-0.756), springiness (0.875-0.997) and resilience (0.328-0.438).

“Likewise, Onyango et al. (Onyango, Mutungi, Unbehend, & Lindhauer, 2011) obtained, for GF bread elaborated with different rice, cassava, potato and maize starches-sorghum ratios, comparable TPA values for firmness (i.e., hardness) from 760 to 4862 g and chewiness (from 666 to 2383 g), although they measured higher values for cohesiveness (from 0.563 to 0.756), springiness (from 0.875 to 0.997) and”

• cites Onyango, Mutungi, Unbehend, & Lindhauer, 2011 sourcePartly supported

  Table 3 lists the quoted firmness, cohesiveness, springiness, resilience and chewiness ranges for cassava–sorghum bread. The claim extends those ranges to breads made with rice, potato and maize starch, but some of their values fall outside them: rice–sorghum firmness reaches 5271 g, and potato–sorghum chewiness falls to 510 g. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

High springiness values are preferred because they relate to bread freshness and elasticity; a reduction in resilience or springiness characterises loss of elasticity, as both properties indicate the ability of a material to return to its original shape after stressing.

“According to Cornejo & Rosell (Cornejo & Rosell, 2015), high springiness values are preferred because it is related to the bread freshness and elasticity, a reduction in resilience or springiness characterises loss of elasticity, because both properties indicate the ability of a material to return to its original shape after stressing.”

• cites Cornejo & Rosell, 2015 sourceSupported

The quote only partly states this claim.

Lower water content decreased crumb water activity (aw) (p < .001).

“As expected, according to Table 3, the amount of free water in the crumb significantly decreased with the addition of higher concentrations of XG (p < .001)and lower WC amounts (p < .001).”

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Loaf specific volume was affected by xanthan gum and hydration (p < .001), but the interaction of both factors had no significant effect.

“Specific volume was affected (p < .001)by xanthan and hydration; however, the interaction of both factors had no significant effect (Table 3).”

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The batter stickiness properties ranged from 28.81 to 55.90 g for STIba, from 3.19 to 4.57 g•s for ADHba, and from 2.42 to 3.67 mm for SCOba.

“The batter stickiness properties of STIba, ADHba and SCOba, ranged from 28.81 to 55.90 g, from 3.19 to 4.57 g•s and from 2.42 to 3.67 mm, respectively.”

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For back-extrusion viscosity index, at a constant water content of 110%, increasing xanthan gum from 1.5% to 3.5% increased batter viscosity index by about 100%, while at 90% water content the increase was about 160%.

“For instance, for back extrusion viscosity index, at a constant WC of 110%, the increase in XG from 1.5 to 3.5%, increased batter viscosity index by ~100% while, at the lowest WC of 90%, the increase was higher at ~160%.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Higher water content resulted in less acidic crumbs (higher pH) (p < .001).

“On the other hand, 90, 100 and 110% of WC resulted in slightly less acidic crumbs, with pH values of 6.55, 6.57 and 6.59, respectively.”

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After baking, loaves made with higher xanthan gum doses presented lower specific volume, lower crumb water activity, pH, hardness, springiness, mean cell area and void fraction, and higher chewiness, resilience, mean cell density, cell size uniformity and mean cell compactness.

“After baking, these loaves presented lower specific volume; lower crumb a w , pH, hardness, springiness, mean cell area and void fraction; and higher (p < .001)chewiness, resilience, mean cell density, cell size uniformity and mean cell compactness.”

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At a constant water level, higher doses of xanthan gum produce less sticky batters, but of increased firmness, index of viscosity and consistency.

“Higher amounts of xanthan gum, in gluten-free bread formulated with a mixture of rice, maize and quinoa flours, have in principle the capacity to retain more water; however, at a constant water level, higher doses of xanthan gum produce less sticky batters, but of increased firmness, index of viscosity and consistency, that translates into baked loaves of reduced specific volume with a more”

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Higher doses of xanthan gum produced loaf slices with lower mean cell area, void fraction and mean cell aspect ratio (p < 0.001), and higher mean cell density, cell size uniformity and mean cell compactness (p < 0.001).

“Higher doses of XG produced loaf slices of lower MCA, VFR and ARA values (p < .001),and higher CDE, UNI and COM (p < .001).”

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Among the nine formulations, the most open crumb grain was attained with 1.5% xanthan gum and 110% water content (mean cell area 1.89 mm2), while the formulation with 3.5% xanthan gum and 90% water content produced the smallest mean cell size (0.73 mm2), characterising a denser structure, also reflected by the lowest specific volume (1.59 ml/g).

“From the nine formulations, the more open crumb grain was attained by the formulation with 1.5% XG and 110% WC (MCA value of 1.89 mm 2 ; Fig. 6), whereas the formulation with 3.5% XG and 90% WC produced the smallest mean cell size (0.73 mm 2 ), characterising the denser structure obtained, which was also reflected by the lowest specific volume of this formulation (1.59 ml/g; Fig. 3).”

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Higher water content formulations produced more open grain textures, while lower water content formulations produced closer crumbs of smaller pores.

“Whereas higher WC formulations produced more open grain textures, lower WC formulations produced the opposite trend:closer crumbs of smaller pores.”

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The 110% water content treatments produced softer breads, with lower hardness (1995 g), adhesiveness (-12.80 g·s), chewiness (911 g), and higher springiness (0.884), cohesiveness (0.517) and resilience (0.217), compared to the 90% and 100% water content treatments.

“However, the addition of higher amounts of water can improve crumb texture, since the 110% WC treatments produced softer breads, with lower (p < .001)values of HARbr (1995 g), ADHbr (-12.80 g•s), CHEbr (911 g), and higher values of SPRbr (0.884), COHbr (0.517) and RESbr (0.217), compared to those obtained from the lower WC treatments of 90 and 100%.”

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Loaves with 1.5% xanthan gum exhibited crumbs with larger pores, higher mean cell area (1.35 mm2), void fraction (0.29) and mean cell aspect ratio (1.75), and lower mean cell density (0.25 cells/mm2), cell size uniformity (20.5) and mean cell compactness (0.76) compared to loaves with 2.5% and 3.5% xanthan gum.

“Loaves of lower XG contents (1.5%) exhibited crumbs made up of larger pores, with higher values of MCA (1.35 mm 2 ), VFR (0.29) and ARA (1.75); and lower values of CDE (0.25 cells/mm 2 ), UNI (20.5) and COM (0.76) compared to those obtained with higher XG levels of 2.5 and 3.5% (Table 5 and Fig. 6).”

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In gluten-free bread crumb, the TPA parameters hardness, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness and resilience were significantly affected by xanthan gum, water content and their interaction (p < 0.01), while xanthan gum had no significant effect on chewiness.

“The parameters of the TPA (HARbr, ADHbr, SPRbr, COHbr and RESbr) were affected (p < 0.01) by XG, WC and their interaction; however, XG had no significant effect on CHEbr (Table 4).”

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Higher values of cell size uniformity and mean cell compactness were obtained with 3.5% xanthan gum and 90% water content, corresponding to a denser structure.

“Notice that higher values of UNI and COM were obtained with higher amounts of XG (3.5%) and lower values of WC (90%), corresponding in both cases to a denser structure (Fig. 5).”

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Higher doses of water content produce stickier and less viscous batters of decreased firmness and consistency.

“On the other hand, higher doses of water content produce stickier and less viscous batters of decreased firmness and consistency, which settle into baked loaves of greater specific volume with a more cohesive and springy but softer crumb texture.”

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Loaves with 90% water content were significantly harder (5130 g), more chewy (2031 g), and less cohesive (0.477), springy (0.833) and resilient (0.188) than loaves with 100% and 110% water content.

“According to the TPA, loaves with the lowest WC (90%) were significantly harder (HARbr = 5130 g), more chewy (CHEbr = 2031 g), and less cohesive (COHbr = 0.477), springy (SPRbr = 0.833) and resilient (RESbr = 0.188) than the treatments with 100 and 110% WC.”

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In this study, the highest springiness was reached at a xanthan gum dose of 2.5%, and springiness and resilience increased with increasing water content.

“In our work, the highest springiness was reached at a XG dose of 2.5%, and springiness and resilience increased with increasing WC (Fig. 4).”

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The back-extrusion analysis values ranged from 359 to 1990 g for FIRba, from 3494 to 17,363 g•s for CONba, from -261 to -1099 g for COHba, and from -1250 to -4692 g•s for VISba.

“The back extrusion analysis values ranged for FIRba from 359 to 1990 g, for CONba from 3494 to 17,363 g•s, for COHba from -261 to -1099 g and for VISba from -1250 to -4692 g•s.”

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Xanthan gum also had a significant impact on bread crumb texture (p = 0.001), though to a lower extent than water content (p = 2.2 × 10^-16).

“Although, to a lower extent than WC (p = 2.2 × 10 -16 ), XG (p = 0.001) also had an impact on bread crumb texture.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gluten-free bread is commonly formulated with rice and maize flour because they are relatively cheap ingredients.

“GF bread is commonly formulated with rice and maize flour since they are relatively cheap ingredients (Hager et al., 2012;Hager & Arendt, 2013).”

• cites Hager et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hager & Arendt, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Both statistical models were tested for normality of residuals using standard diagnostics.

“All two models were tested for the normality of residuals using standard diagnostics to ensure that all dependent variables met the assumptions of normal distribution.”

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In low amounts, xanthan gum increases loaf volume and improves bread rheological and sensory properties.

“In low amounts, XG has been found to increase loaf volume, and improve bread rheological and sensory properties (Hager & Arendt, 2013).”

• cites Hager & Arendt, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Treatments with higher xanthan gum and lower water content would be desired from the safety viewpoint because microbial stability of gluten-free breads could be compromised by high water activity.

“Since microbial stability of GF breads could be compromised by high a w , treatments with higher XG and lower WC amounts would be desired from the safety viewpoint.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Microbial stability of gluten-free breads could be compromised by high water activity.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The higher the molecular weight of xanthan gum, the greater the water holding capacity due to the higher radius of gyration.

“The higher the molecular weight, the greater the water holding capacity due to the higher radius of gyration (i.e., water around the hydrocolloid).”

• cites Funami et al., 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Horstmann, Axel, & Arendt, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Analyses of variance were applied to assess the effect of xanthan gum, water content and their interaction on baking loss, pH, water activity, batter stickiness and back-extrusion using a linear model.

“Analyses of variance were applied to assess the effect of XG, WC and their interaction on the response variables: baking loss, pH, a w , batter stickiness and back-extrusion, performed by a linear model.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

For specific volume, texture profile analysis and bread crumb image features, a linear mixed model was fitted to assess the main effects of xanthan gum dose and water content and their interaction, assuming that measurements taken from the same loaf were correlated.

“For the response variables: specific volume, TPA and bread crumb image features, a linear mixed model, was fitted instead to assess the main effects of XG dose and WC, and their interaction, assuming that measurements taken from the same loaf were correlated.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Measurements taken from the same loaf were correlated.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Maize flour dietary fibre has been found to produce higher loaf volume and lower crumb hardness compared to gluten-free bread without coarse maize flour.

“Maize flour also contributes to gluten free breadmaking since their dietary fibre has been found to produce higher loaf volumeand lower crumb hardness as compared to GF bread without coarse maize flour (Naqash, Gani, Gani, & Masoodi, 2017).”

• cites Naqash, Gani, Gani, & Masoodi, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Xanthan gum is largely used in gluten-free breadmaking because it can hydrate in cold water and produce a viscous solution with strong shear-thinning flow behaviour.

“Xanthan gum, a polysaccharide produced by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris, is largely used in GF breadmaking, because it can hydrate in cold water and produce a viscous solution with strong shear-thinning flow behaviour (Diekjürgen & Grainger, 2017;Peressini, Pin, & Sensidoni, 2011).”

• cites Diekjürgen & Grainger, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Peressini, Pin, & Sensidoni, 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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The polyanionic behaviour of xanthan gum due to its acetic and pyruvic acid groups influences gluten-free batter properties, allowing more interactions with water through hydrogen bonds.

“According to Diekjürgen & Grainger (Diekjürgen & Grainger, 2017), this phenomenon is an effect of the polyanionic behaviour of xanthan gum due to the acetic and pyruvic acid groups of its chemical structure.These acid groups influence the GF batter properties, allowing more interactions with water through hydrogen bonds.”

• cites Diekjürgen & Grainger, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When effects were significant at alpha = 0.05, Tukey's Honest Significant Difference test was performed.

“When the effects were significant (α = 0.05), Tukey's Honest Significant Difference test was performed.”

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The sticker and less consistent batters produced with higher water content rendered larger bread loaves of softer and more springy/resilient crumbs with greater mean cell size and void fraction.

“The sticker and less consistent batters produced with higher WC rendered larger bread loaves of softer and more springy/resilient crumbs with greater mean cell size and void fraction.”

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Addition of hydrocolloids improves the rheological features of gluten-free batter by imitating the visco-elastic properties of gluten and increasing gas retention and loaf specific volume.

“The addition of hydrocolloids is used to improve the rheological features of GF batter, as these molecules imitate the visco-elastic properties of gluten, and are essential to increase gas retention during proofing, baking, and hence to increase the loaf specific volume (Hager & Arendt, 2013).”

• cites Hager & Arendt, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kenward-Roger correction was applied to reduce small sample bias.

“Additionally, Kenward-Roger correction was applied for reducing small sample bias (McNeish & Harring, 2017).”

• cites McNeish & Harring, 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

11S type globulins from pseudocereals have predominantly beta-sheet structure with beta-barrel conformation and are associated with the formation of good quality batters.

“In general, 11S type globulins from pseudocereals have predominantly βsheet structure with β-barrel conformation and, therefore they are associated in the formation of good quality batters (Mir, Riar, & Singh, 2018).”

• cites Mir, Riar, & Singh, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The effects of xanthan gum and water content were evaluated using a full factorial design, producing nine batches of gluten-free bread.

“The effects of XG (three doses tested: 1.5, 2.5 or 3.5%) and WC (three levels tested: 90, 100 or 110%) were evaluated using a full factorial design; thus, producing nine batches of GF bread.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Quinoa's 11S globulin, also referred to as chenopodin, has a similar structure to glycinin, the 11S globulin of soy.

“Quinoa's 11S globulin, also referred to as chenopodin, has a similar structure to glycinin, the 11S globulin of soy (Ruiz, Xiao, van Boekel, Minor, & Stieger, 2016).”

• cites Ruiz, Xiao, van Boekel, Minor, & Stieger, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Recommended doses of xanthan gum in gluten-free bread generally range between 0.5% and 2.0% (flour weight), but this is strongly linked to bread formulation and water content.

“By optimising textural and sensory attributes, researchers have recommended doses of XG in GF bread, that, in general, range between 0.5% up to 2.0% (flour weight); yet, this is strongly linked to bread formulation and water content (Hager & Arendt, 2013;Sciarini, Ribotta, León, & Pérez, 2010a).”

• cites Hager & Arendt, 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sciarini, Ribotta, León, & Pérez, 2010aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

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Baked goods lacking a gluten matrix have poor technological quality, manifested by low specific volume, high crumb hardness and high staling rate.

“Extensive research has been devoted to the development of GF bread because baked goods lacking a gluten matrix have poor technological quality, as manifested by their low specific volume, high crumb hardness and high staling rate (Pasqualone et al., 2010;Schober, Messerschmidt, Bean, Park, & Arendt, 2005;Sciarini, Ribotta, León, & Pérez, 2010a;Sciarini, Ribotta, León, & Pérez, 2010b).”

• cites Pasqualone et al., 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schober, Messerschmidt, Bean, Park, & Arendt, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sciarini, Ribotta, León, & Pérez, 2010aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

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This translates into baked loaves of reduced specific volume with a more cohesive and less springy crumb texture.

“Higher amounts of xanthan gum, in gluten-free bread formulated with a mixture of rice, maize and quinoa flours, have in principle the capacity to retain more water; however, at a constant water level, higher doses of xanthan gum produce less sticky batters, but of increased firmness, index of viscosity and consistency, that translates into baked loaves of reduced specific volume with a more”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Schober et al. (2005) found that sorghum bread with a fine crumb structure was tougher than bread with a coarse and open crumb structure.

“Similar to our findings were those reported by Schober et al. (Schober, Messerschmidt, Bean, Park, & Arendt, 2005) who encountered that sorghum bread with a fine crumb structure was tougher than bread with a coarse and open crumb structure.”

• cites Schober, Messerschmidt, Bean, Park, & Arendt, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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This leads to a less uniform grain and a higher void fraction.

“This leads to a less uniform grain (since the number of large cells is greater) and a higher void fraction.”

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The presence of larger cells can be linked to a spongier crumb structure, which is a desirable bread quality property not typically found in gluten-free breads.

“The presence of larger cells can also be linked to a spongier crumb structure, which is a desirable bread quality property, yet not typically found in GF breads.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The instrumental TPA parameters and crumb grain image features used (specific volume, hardness, springiness, mean cell density, cell size uniformity, void fraction, mean cell aspect ratio, mean cell compactness) are valid indicators of gluten-free bread quality.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

With the experimental design used, a good understanding of the combined effects of xanthan gum and water content on the rheological and textural properties of the gluten-free bread was achieved.

“It is noteworthy to indicate that, in this study, the xanthan gum dose and water content were not statistically optimized, yet, with the experimental design used, a good understanding of their combined effects of the rheological and textural properties of the gluten-free bread was achieved.”

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Lower water content levels yielded tougher breads, as a consequence of producing firmer, more viscous and less sticky batters.

“Having produced firmer, more viscous and less sticky batters, lower WC levels consequently yielded tougher breads (Fig. 4).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The instrumental TPA parameters and crumb grain image features used (specific volume, hardness, springiness, mean cell density, cell size uniformity, void fraction, mean cell aspect ratio, mean cell compactness) are valid indicators of gluten-free bread quality.

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When batter expands more and steadily during proofing and baking, a greater number of large cells is produced, lowering the ratio of small-to-large cells (UNI), and due to coalescence, large cells tend to be more elongated and less compact, lowering COM.

“Thus, when during proofing and baking, batter expands more and steadily, a greater number of large cells is produced, therefore bringing down the ratio of small-to-large cells (UNI), while due to coalescence, the large cells tend to be more elongated and less compact, thereby bringing down the values of COM.”

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As a consequence, cell size uniformity is greater but void fraction is lower.

“As a consequence, the cell size uniformity is greater but the void fraction is lower.”

May combine two claims.

The formulation with 110% water content and xanthan gum between 1.5% and 2.5% produced loaves of good quality in terms of high specific volume, low hardness, high springiness, low mean cell density, low cell size uniformity, high void fraction, high mean cell aspect ratio and low mean cell compactness.

“The highest water content of 110% and XG between 1.5 and 2.5% produced loaves of good quality in terms of high specific volume, low hardness, high springiness, low mean cell density, low cell size uniformity, high void fraction, high mean cell aspect ratio and low mean cell compactness.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The instrumental TPA parameters and crumb grain image features used (specific volume, hardness, springiness, mean cell density, cell size uniformity, void fraction, mean cell aspect ratio, mean cell compactness) are valid indicators of gluten-free bread quality.

May combine two claims.

These settle into baked loaves of greater specific volume with a more cohesive and springy but softer crumb texture.

“On the other hand, higher doses of water content produce stickier and less viscous batters of decreased firmness and consistency, which settle into baked loaves of greater specific volume with a more cohesive and springy but softer crumb texture.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Bread crumb with high cohesiveness is desirable because it forms a bolus instead of disintegrating during mastication, whereas low cohesiveness indicates increased susceptibility of the bread to fracture or crumble.

“Bread crumb with high cohesiveness is desirable because it forms a bolus, instead of disintegrating during mastication whereas low cohesiveness indicates increased susceptibility of the bread to fracture or crumble.”