“Generation invisible?. Higher Education Students’ (Non)Use of Webcams in Synchronous Online Learning
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Abstract
The pandemic situation continues to influence teaching and learning in higher education, with students oftentimes participating in synchronous videoconferencing sessions as a means to interact with peers and instructors. The frequently noted non-use of webcams by students incited the current study, investigating usage behavior as well as potentially related course variables and individual characteristics. N = 3,527 students from a German university took part in an online survey at the end of the regular summer term 2020 (August 2020). Findings indicate that students’ webcam usage behavior was related to personal thoughts and feelings (e.g., privacy), to course characteristics (e.g., group cohesion), and it differed due to specific groups (gender, study level). With the ongoing importance of videoconferencing in higher education, this study provides a foundation for further investigation into this synchronous learning context.
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“…have investigated HEI students’ attitudes to the use of webcams in online teaching and specifically why students do not want to have their webcams on during online classes (Almekhled & Petrie 2023a; Bedenlier et al., 2021; Castelli & Sarvary, 2021; Dixon & Syred, 2022; Gherhe ș et al., 2021).”
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“However, students’ lack of engagement in online learning has been a serious problem reported in many studies (e.g. Bedenlier et al., 2020; Sherer & Shea, 2011).”
Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning
Papageorgiou, V. (2020) · doi:10.21428/8c225f6e · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Tai, Y.-J., Cheng, J.-T., & Huang, T.-R. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1794843
“Although social norms encourage participants to keep their cameras on (Zabel et al., 2022), individuals frequently turn them off due to bandwidth constraints (Castelli and Sarvary, 2021), privacy concerns (Bedenlier et al., 2021), or accumulated fatigue (Shockley et al., 2021).”
Rojabi, A. (2025) · Journal for Multicultural Education · doi:10.1108/jme-01-2025-0018
Kishira, H., & Sasaki, G. (2025) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2025.2562160
“%) always used webcams (Bedenlier et al., 2021).”
Enhancing Academic Feedback Systems with Deep Learning and Ensemble Methods
Sharma, H., & Joshi, H. (2025) · International Conference on Advances in Computer Science, Electrical, Electronics, and Communication Technologies (CE2CT) · doi:10.1109/ce2ct64011.2025.10939665
“Less social support along with more work were the outcomes of concerns raised in remote education settings during the pandemic, including as students' unease with webcam use and their perceptions of hazy relationships with classmates[14].”
SpotiView: Partial Face Display Method for Smooth Communication While Protecting Privacy
Kishimoto, R., Tsuchida, S., Terada, T., & Tsukamoto, M. (2024) · IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia · doi:10.1109/ism63611.2024.00056
“Although facial visibility improves communication, many users hesitate to show their faces due to privacy and appearance concerns [3].”
Assessment of Challenges and Significance of Online Teaching and Learning
Vyas-Doorgapersad, S., & Doorgapersad, A. (2024) · International Journal of Religion · doi:10.61707/pfzvyp37
“The authors (Bedenlier et al. 2020) related this to how students often see themselves in their new surroundings and how they are unsure of who can see them.”
BackgroundResultMasks, Cameras and Social PressurePreprint
Rasooly, I., & Rozzi, R. (2024) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4240985
S, P., Singh, J., Singh, S., Goyal, S., Upadhye, V., & Rampal, S. (2024) · Salud, Ciencia y Tecnología · doi:10.56294/saludcyt2024.919
Succi, C., Nobile, T. H., Cantoni, L., & Tardini, S. (2024) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1093/iwc/iwae033
Irawan, A., & Gunawan, K. D. H. (2022) · ENGLISH JOURNAL OF INDRAGIRI · doi:10.32520/eji.v6i2.1945
“Many of them turn off the camera and do other activities during the teaching and learning process (Bedenlier et al., 2021; Schwenck & Pryor, 2021).”
BackgroundCalvo‐Ferrer, J. R. (2022) · Íkala Revista de Lenguaje y Cultura · doi:10.17533/udea.ikala.v27n2a01 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Esto se encuentra en línea con estudios previos (Bedenlier et al., 2020), al tiempo que permite descartar, de forma general, la presencia de impedimentos técnicos para el Modelo B Coeficientes no estandarizados Coeficientes estandarizados t Sig.”
BackgroundInfluentialUmmi, R., Baker, D., Kerr-Sims, S., & Galib, M. H. (2024) · Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange · doi:10.18785/jetde.1701.06 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Moreover, some online students feel more at ease when their webcams are turned off (Kozar, 2016 & Bedenlier, et. al, 2021).”
BackgroundCan online learning deliver quality higher Forestry Education? a cross-continental analysis
Onatunji, A. (2022) · Higher forestry education in times of multiple crises : crises as framework conditions, challenges and triggers for improvements; Proceedings of the SILVA Network Conference held at the School of Agriculture and Food Science, University College Dublin, Ireland, June 28th – 30th 2022 · doi:10.25368/2025.038
“Students’ unwillingness to use their camera during online video classes is an example of problems lecturers had to deal with (Bedenlier et al. , 2021).”
- Authors
- Bedenlier, S., Wunder, I., Gläser-Zikuda, M., Kammerl, R., Kopp, B., Ziegler, A., & Händel, M.
- Affiliations
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Bedenlier, Svenja
- Venue
- International Journal of Educational Research Open
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021
- Volume
- 2
- Pages
- 100068
- ISSN
- 2666-3740 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3195685882
- Cited by
- 93
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 10
- FWCI
- 35.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Educational Research Open (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- OPUS (Augsburg University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovations in Educational Methods
- Keywords
- webcam use, synchronous online learning, videoconferencing, university students, COVID-19 pandemic, privacy concerns, group cohesion, gender differences, study level
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