Spatial knowledge impairment after GPS guided navigation: Eye-tracking study in a virtual town
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The negative effects of mobile maps are primarily attributed to changes in wayfinders' visual behavior and to users entering a passive navigation state where navigation is delegated to the map aid.
“The negative effects of mobile maps are primarily attributed to changes in wayfinders’ visual behavior (Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018) and to users entering a passive navigation state where the task of navigation is delegated to the map aid (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Ishikawa, 2019; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Hejtmánek et al., 2018
Hejtmánek et al. (2018) suggested that low-spatial ability wayfinders focus longer on a mobile map during navigation because they are not confident in their spatial abilities, which coincided with reduced navigation performance in their study.
“Hejtmánek et al. (2018) suggested that low-spatial ability wayfinders focus longer on a mobile map during navigation because they are not confident in their spatial abilities, which coincided with reduced navigation performance in their study.”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Hejtmánek et al., 2018
The current discourse on navigational aids, including GPS, emphasizes their role in worsening spatial abilities.
“From an applied point of view, the current discourse on navigational aids (including GPS) emphasizes their role in worsening spatial abilities (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Ishikawa et al., 2008; Münzer et al., 2012; Ruginski et al., 2019).”
From This is not the way: global directional cues do not improve spatial learning in an immersive virtual environment (2025) · cites this paper as Hejtmánek et al., 2018
In prior experiments, navigational aids, by replacing internal computations with external cues, remove the requirement that the spatial layout is learned by the navigator at all, and thus when asked to remember it later, show poorer spatial memory.
“In these experiments, navigational aids, by replacing internal computations with external cues, remove the requirement that the spatial layout is learned by the navigator at all; and thus, when they are asked to remember it later, show poorer spatial memory.”
From This is not the way: global directional cues do not improve spatial learning in an immersive virtual environment (2025) · cites this paper as Hejtmánek et al., 2018
The rate of spatial knowledge acquisition declines as the mobile map aid reduces the allocation of attentional resources to task-relevant environmental features important for spatial learning.
“Consequently, the rate of spatial knowledge acquisition declines as the mobile map aid reduces the allocation of attentional resources to task-relevant environmental features that are important for spatial learning (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Hejtmánek et al., 2018
The modulation of visual attention during aided navigation leads to divided and selective attention between the mobile map display and the environment.
“The modulation of visual attention during aided navigation leads to a divided and selective attention between the mobile map display and the environment (Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Hejtmánek et al., 2018
This result aligns with previous studies showing that guiding attention to the environment and task-relevant landmarks strengthens the encoding of these features and supports spatial memory formations.
“This result aligns with previous studies, showing that guiding attention to the environment and task-relevant landmarks strengthens the encoding of these features and supports spatial memory formations (Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Willis et al., 2009).”
From The influence of landmark visualization style on task performance, visual attention, and spatial learning in a real-world navigation task (2024) · cites this paper as Hejtmánek et al., 2018
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“…information would improve users’ spatial learning, whilst longer attention to the mobile map display would reduce acquisition of spatial knowledge (Chrastil & Warren, 2012; Gardony et al., 2013, 2015; Hejtmánek et al., 2018; Kapaj et al., 2023; Koletsis et al., 2017; Willis et al., 2009).”
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Xu, X., Yang, J., Zhao, S., Li, Y., Ren, L., Li, M., & Yan, B. (2025) · Geo-spatial Information Science · doi:10.1080/10095020.2025.2558822 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Gabay, M., & Schönberg, T. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01297-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Zhao, J., Wang, M., & Li, R. (2026) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2026.1908953
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Ying, Q., Hilton, C. W., & Fabrikant, S. I. (2026) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2026.103031
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Map Orientation Impact on Spatial Acquisition During a Memory Task
Romero, L., & MILES, J. S. (2026) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/10711813261475158
- Authors
- Hejtmánek, L., Oravcová, I., Motýl, J., Horáček, J., & Fajnerová, I.
- Affiliations
- Charles University (CZ)
- National Institute of Mental Health (CZ)
- Corresponding author
- Hejtmánek, Lukáš
- Venue
- International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 116
- Pages
- 15-24
- ISSN
- 1071-5819 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2799996501
- Cited by
- 91
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 2.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Human-Computer Studies (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Ministry of Health (17-30833A)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Geography Education and Pedagogy
- Keywords
- GPS navigation, spatial knowledge, wayfinding, spatial learning, eye movements, cognitive skills, technology dependence
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