Use of large language models might affect our cognitive skills

Supersizing the Mind: Embodiment, Action, and Cognitive Extension

Clark, A. (2008) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195333213.001.0001 · Cited by 2,201 · see citing works

Google Effects on Memory: Cognitive Consequences of Having Information at Our Fingertips

Sparrow, B., Liu, J., & Wegner, D. M. (2011) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1207745 · Cited by 1,762 · see citing works

Exograms and Interdisciplinarity: History, the Extended Mind, and the Civilizing Process

Sutton, J. D. (2010) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262014038.003.0009 · Cited by 403 · see citing works

Writing as thinking

Menary, R. (2007) · Language Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2007.01.005 · Cited by 214 · see citing works

Dimensions of integration in embedded and extended cognitive systems

Heersmink, R. (2015) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-014-9355-1 · Cited by 191 · see citing works

A Taxonomy of Cognitive Artifacts: Function, Information, and Categories

Heersmink, R. (2013) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-013-0148-1 · Cited by 164 · see citing works

Spatial knowledge impairment after GPS guided navigation: Eye-tracking study in a virtual town

Hejtmánek, L., Oravcová, I., Motýl, J., Horáček, J., & Fajnerová, I. (2018) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2018.04.006 · Cited by 91 · see citing works

The Internet, Cognitive Enhancement, and the Values of Cognition

Heersmink, R. (2016) · Minds and Machines · doi:10.1007/s11023-016-9404-3 · Cited by 71 · see citing works

The association of precollege use of calculators with student performance in college calculus

Mao, Y., White, T., Sadler, P. M., & Sonnert, G. (2016) · Educational Studies in Mathematics · doi:10.1007/s10649-016-9714-7 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

Delving into LLM-assisted writing in biomedical publications through excess vocabulary

Kobak, D., González-Márquez, R., Horvát, E.-Á., & Lause, J. (2024) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2406.07016 · Cited by 214

Delving into LLM-assisted writing in biomedical publications through excess vocabulary

Kobak, D., González-Márquez, R., Horvát, E.-Á., & Lause, J. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adt3813 · Cited by 213 · see citing works

A phenomenology and epistemology of large language models: transparency, trust, and trustworthiness

Heersmink, R., de Rooij, B., Clavel Vázquez, M. J., & Colombo, M. (2024) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-024-09777-3 · Cited by 91 · see citing works

Effects of generative artificial intelligence on cognitive effort and task performance: study protocol for a randomized controlled experiment among college students

Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Wüstenberg, T., Kizilcec, R. F., Fan, Y., Li, Y., Lu, B., Yuan, M., Zhang, J., Zhang, Z., et al. (2025) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-025-08950-3 · Cited by 58 · see citing works

Human Creativity in the Age of LLMs: Randomized Experiments on Divergent and Convergent Thinking

Kumar, H., Vincentius, J., Jordan, E., & Anderson, A. (2025) · Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3714198 · Cited by 51 · see citing works

Strong and weak alignment of large language models with human values

Khamassi, M., Nahon, M., & Chatila, R. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-70031-3 · Cited by 49 · see citing works

The impact of generative AI on critical thinking skills: a systematic review, conceptual framework and future research directions

Helal, M. Y. I., Elgendy, I. A., Albashrawi, M. A., Dwivedi, Y. K., Al-Ahmadi, S., & Jeon, I. (2025) · Information Discovery and Delivery · doi:10.1108/idd-05-2025-0125 · Cited by 47 · see citing works

Scientific hypothesis generation by large language models: laboratory validation in breast cancer treatment

Abdel‐Rehim, A., Zenil, H., Orhobor, O. I., Fisher, M., Collins, R. J., Bourne, E., Fearnley, G. W., Tate, E., Smith, H. X., Soldatova, L., et al. (2025) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2024.0674 · Cited by 46 · see citing works

Use of generative AI in research: ethical considerations and emotional experiences

Farangi, M. R., Nejadghanbar, H., & Hu, G. (2024) · Ethics & Behavior · doi:10.1080/10508422.2024.2420133 · Cited by 45 · see citing works

From assistance to reliance: Development and validation of the large language model dependence scale

Li, Z., Zhang, Z., Wang, M., & Wu, Q. (2025) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2025.102888 · Cited by 43 · see citing works

Empowering Generalist Material Intelligence with Large Language Models

Yuan, W., Chen, G., Wang, Z., & You, F. (2025) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202502771 · Cited by 34 · see citing works

The extended hollowed mind: why foundational knowledge is indispensable in the age of AI

Klein, C. R., & Klein, R. (2025) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1719019 · Cited by 27 · see citing works

Creative scar without generative AI: individual creativity fails to sustain while homogeneity keeps climbing

Zhou, Y., Liu, Q., Huang, J., & Li, G. (2026) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103087 · Cited by 24 · see citing works

Core principles of responsible generative AI usage in research

Knöchel, T.-D., Schweizer, K. J., Acar, O. A., Akıl, A. M., Al‐Hoorie, A. H., Buehler, F., Elsherif, M. M., Giannini, A., Heyselaar, E., Hosseini, M., et al. (2025) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-025-00768-8 · Cited by 22 · see citing works

The impact of generative artificial intelligence on students’ higher order thinking: evidence from a three-level meta-analysis

Nie, X., Tian, Y., Liu, M., Wu, D., & Guo, Y. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13735-x · Cited by 20 · see citing works

The Dark Side of Cognitive Enhancement: A Framework for the Technologically Induced Cognitive Diminishment

Fasoli, M., Cassinadri, G., & Ienca, M. (2025) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-025-00331-7 · Cited by 20 · see citing works

Brain health is essential for smooth economic transitions: towards socio-economic sustainability, productivity and well-being

Nail-Beatty, O., Ibáñez, A. M., Ayadi, R., Świeboda, P., NJAMNSHI, A. K., Occhipinti, J., Hynes, W. M., Ikiz, B., Castro‐Aldrete, L., O’Brien, K., et al. (2024) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcae360 · Cited by 20 · see citing works

In ChatGPT they trust: a study of students' perceptions and misuse of ChatGPT in higher education

Yeung, L. K. C., Chow, D. P. L., Wong, P. H., & Lau, S. S. S. (2026) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-025-00855-w · Cited by 16 · see citing works

Dual-process theory and decision-making in large language models

Brady, O., Nulty, P., Zhang, L., Ward, T. E., & McGovern, D. P. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-025-00506-1 · Cited by 16 · see citing works

Recalibrating academic expertise in the age of generative AI

Lin, Z., & Sohail, A. (2026) · Patterns · doi:10.1016/j.patter.2025.101473 · Cited by 15 · see citing works

"Should I Give Up Now?" Investigating LLM Pitfalls in Software Engineering

Tie, J., Yao, B., Li, T., Fang, H., Ahmed, S. I., Wang, D., & Zhou, S. (2026) · ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology · doi:10.1145/3801972 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

What kind of documents can AI language model outputs be? The concept of artificially blended testimony

Donner, S. (2025) · Journal of Documentation · doi:10.1108/jd-11-2024-0271 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Generative AI voting: fair collective choice is resilient to LLM biases and inconsistencies

Majumdar, S., Elkind, E., & Pournaras, E. (2026) · EPJ Data Science · doi:10.1140/epjds/s13688-025-00612-3 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Meaningful work in peril? Preserving self-efficacy in the age of artificial intelligence

Winter, H. M. E., Turk, A. M., & Winter, S. F. (2025) · AI and Ethics · doi:10.1007/s43681-025-00717-5 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

A scoping review of the negative effects of digital technology on cognition

Žnidarič, U., Štrumbelj, E., & Machidon, O. M. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101326 · Cited by 5 · see citing works

How Might Artificial Intelligence Influence Human Evolution?

Brooks, R. C. (2024) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/733290 · Cited by 4 · see citing works

W iki H int : A Human-Annotated Dataset for Hint Ranking and Generation

Mozafari, J., Gerhold, F., & Jatowt, A. (2025) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/3726302.3730284 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

CTRL+ Ethics

Marin, L., & Steinert, S. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198945215.003.0010 · Cited by 3 · see citing works

Big tech, the state, or you? Who is responsible for generative AI addiction?

Stahl, B. C., Ali, R., Hitcham, L., Liebherr, M., Murray, R., Vallejos, E. P., & Yankouskaya, A. (2026) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2026.2663509 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

The End of Writing as We Know It? Generative AI May Undermine the Social Signaling Function of WritingPreprint

Zhu, J., & Molnár, A. (2025) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/j8zgv_v1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Editorial: Generative AI, human authorship and the transformation of scholarly communication

Pinochet, L. H. C., Hamza, K. M., & Dwivedi, Y. K. (2026) · Revista de Gestão · doi:10.1108/rege-04-2026-0058 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

The cognitive and moral harms of platform decay

Ardoline, M. J., & Lenzo, E. (2025) · Ethics and Information Technology · doi:10.1007/s10676-025-09846-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

LLMs displaying less cognitive bias are not necessarily better decision makers

Dentella, V., Marelli, M., & Rinaldi, L. (2026) · Nature Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1038/s42256-026-01208-w · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Uncovering the Nexus Between Attitudes Toward LLMs and Problematic Dependency on Them: A Latent Profile Analysis

Rahman, M. M., Ali, R., & Yankouskaya, A. (2026) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-7141-3_2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Recalibrating Academic Expertise in the Age of Generative AIPreprint

Sohail, A., & Lin, Z. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5224452 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Machine Mentoring by Machine Learning: Setting a Research Agenda on How Human-AI Collaboration Can Trigger Knowledge and Bias Transmission

Vicente, L., & Cabitza, F. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-93838-2_5

A Design Space for Articulating and Addressing the Risks of Integrating Generative AI in Education

Coelho, R., Logan, C., Agkün, S., & Pea, R. D. (2025) · Proceedings. · doi:10.22318/icls2025.837880

The Future of Higher Education in the Era of Generative AI

Williams, J. S. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-1875-3_15

An Exploration of Conversation Enhanced Browsing with Hypergraph of Text

Alvarez, D. E. (2026) · Conference on Human Information Interaction and Retrieval · doi:10.1145/3786304.3787935

Is it drinking poison to quench thirst? Learners’ risk awareness and continuance intention to use GAI in L2 writing

Kong, B., & Maruthai, E. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04330-x

Can generative AI be used in school project development?

Stoyanova, A. E., Marasheva-Delinova, I., & Delinov, E. G. (2026) · Proceedings of the... International Conference on Virtual Learning · doi:10.58503/icvl-v21y202626

Rethinking Disruptive Technologies: Benefits, Harms, and Injustices of Human Niche Construction

Coninx, S., & Löhr, G. (2026) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-026-01046-z

Machine learning systems as mentors in human learning: The role of AI output in diagnostic knowledge acquisition

Cabitza, F., & Vicente, L. (2026) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2026.103855

Personalising Learning at Scale: A Mixed-Method Study of AI-Generated Bilingual Avatars and Adaptive Feedback

Jain, J. A., Tay, P. L., Lee, Y. L., & Tan, S. Y. (2026) · Asia Pacific Journal of Educators and Education · doi:10.21315/apjee2026.41.1.11

Bidirectional relations of epistemic beliefs and their impact on student engagement across GenAI platforms: a longitudinal quasi-experiment in middle school programming

Cheng, M., Xia, Q., Lai, X., Wu, W., & Feng, Y. (2026) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2026.2685798

Complementary or Reliance? The Effects of the Timing of AI-assisted Help-seeking in Video-based English Academic Writing LearningPreprint

Pi, Z., Ma, Y., Zhao, X., Cao, W., & Li, X. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7177630

The double-edged sword effect of LLMs dependence: How functional and existential dependence differentially relate to higher-order thinking skills

Tu, J., Sun, Z., & Zhao, W. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101389

Human Cognition and Large Language Models

Rebelo, A. J. R. (2026) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.33974.05447

Mitigating Decline in Cognitive Skills with Hints

Mozafari, J. (2025) · Digital Library of the University of Innsbruck (University of Innsbruck) · doi:10.48763/000011

Can Large Language Models Counter the Recent Decline in Literacy Levels? An Important Role for Cognitive Science

Huettig, F., & Christiansen, M. H. (2024) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13487 · Cited by 2 · see citing works

Reasoning AI (RAI), Large Language Models (LLMs) and CognitionPreprint

Senkevich, V. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4819603

Exploring The Prospects And Challenges Of Large Language Models For Language Learning And ProductionPreprint

Borghi, A. M., Livio, C. D., Mannella, F., Tummolini, L., & Nolfi, S. (2023) · IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) · doi:10.1422/108135 · Cited by 4 · see citing works