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Protecting the Newborn and Young Infant from Infectious Diseases: Lessons from Immune Ontogeny
Open accessAbstract
Infections in the first year of life are common and often severe. The newborn host demonstrates both quantitative and qualitative differences to the adult in nearly all aspects of immunity, which at least partially explain the increased susceptibility to infection. Here we discuss how differences in susceptibility to infection result not out of a state of immaturity, but rather reflect adaptation to the particular demands placed on the immune system in early life. We review the mechanisms underlying host defense in the very young, and discuss how specific developmental demands increase the risk of particular infectious diseases. In this context, we discuss how this plasticity, i.e. the capacity to adapt to demands encountered in early life, also provides the potential to leverage protection of the young against infection and disease through a number of interventions.
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“Vaccination early in life, as well as exposure to a variety of immunogens, can also affect response to pathogens and vaccines across the lifespan, sometimes in unpredictable ways.23”
From SARS-CoV-2 vaccine testing and trials in the pediatric population: biologic, ethical, research, and implementation challenges (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
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Preventing Atopic Diseases During Childhood – Early Exposure Matters
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“damage during autoimmune and inflammatory diseases (19, 20), traumatic stress, transplantation, and sepsis (21–23).”
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“However, immune cells of neonates and adults have phenotypic and functional differences due to the immaturity of the neonatal immune system (Adkins et al., 2004; Kollmann et al., 2017; Langrish et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2019; Melvan et al., 2010; PrabhuDas et al., 2011; Siegrist and Aspinall, 2009; Whittaker et al., 2…”
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“Overall reduced IFN and IL-12 production leads to decreased TH1 differentiation, highlighting the importance of using adjuvants capable of regulating T cell polarization during vaccination [131].”
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“The data showed that both were higher in plasma of newborns and then rapidly declined with age, reaching a low-level set point in adults (Figures 1C,D), likely causing active immunosuppression in early life (Medzhitov et al., 2012; Kollmann et al., 2017).”
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Sakala, I. G., Eichinger, K. M., & Petrovsky, N. (2019) · Expert Review of Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1080/1744666x.2019.1642748 · Cited by 29
“It has more recently been suggested that reduced neonatal immunity is not a defective state of immaturity, but rather reflects necessary adaptation of the immune system to the demands placed on it in early life [15].”
BackgroundRethinking management of neonates at risk of sepsis
Lavoie, P. M., Popescu, C. R., MOLYNEUX, E. M., Wynn, J. L., Chiume, M., Keitel, K., Lufesi, N., Levine, G. A., Ansermino, J. M., & Kissoon, N. “. (2019) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(19)31627-7 · Cited by 27
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“This may disable the infant’s defense against pathogens (10).”
BackgroundIs early life adversity a trigger towards inflammageing?
Merz, M. P., & Turner, J. D. (2021) · Experimental Gerontology · doi:10.1016/j.exger.2021.111377 · Cited by 29
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“Accumulated evidence has revealed a number of deficiencies of adaptive immunity in neonates and infants for both cell- and antibody-mediated responses.(2,6,7) Due to the immature state of adaptive immunity that favors tolerance and contributes little to host defense mechanism against microbial infection, neonates rely…”
BackgroundNeonatal sepsis and transient immunodeficiency: Potential for novel immunoglobulin therapies?
Beudeker, C. R., Vijlbrief, D. C., van Montfrans, J. M., Rooijakkers, S. H. M., & van der Flier, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1016877 · Cited by 29
“This susceptibility is multifactorial: transient immunodeficiency of immaturity, indwelling central lines and respiratory support are important risk factors (3).”
BackgroundChanges in antifungal defence systems during the intermoult period in the Colorado potato beetle
Tomilova, O. G., Yaroslavtseva, O. N., Ganina, M. D., Tyurin, M. V., Chernyak, E. I., Senderskiy, I. V., Noskov, Y. A., Polenogova, O. V., Akhanaev, Y. B., Kryukov, V. Y., et al. (2019) · Journal of Insect Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2019.05.003 · Cited by 26
Kupffer cell reverse migration into the liver sinusoids mitigates neonatal sepsis and meningitis
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S100-Alarmins Are Essential Pilots of Postnatal Innate Immune Adaptation
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“The manifold reported associations of all these conditions with an unfavorable short-term as well as longterm immune adaptation including an increased susceptibility to infections (5, 9, 10, 14) and a higher risk for developing chronic inflammatory diseases (2, 3, 11, 12, 14) are a strong indicator for S100-alarmins b…”
BackgroundIL-6 Impairs Vaccine Responses in Neonatal Mice
Yang, J., Sakai, J., Siddiqui, S., Lee, R. C., Ireland, D. D. C., Verthelyi, D. I., & Akkoyunlu, M. (2018) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.03049 · Cited by 24
Gaio, D., DeMaere, M. Z., Anantanawat, K., Chapman, T. A., Djordjevic, S. P., & Darling, A. E. (2021) · Microbial Genomics · doi:10.1099/mgen.0.000501 · Cited by 27
“Supporting the latter, it is known that during weaning, the immune system undergoes training to recognize pathogens by initially tolerating a large number of species, so as to develop the necessary antigens upon encounter [97, 98].”
Saso, A., Kampmann, B., & Roetynck, S. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9080877 · Cited by 24
“This can be explained by epigenetic processes, lower soluble factors, and suboptimal frequency and distinct functional capacity of antigen-presenting cells [133,186].”
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Laubhahn, K., & Schaub, B. (2023) · Pediatric Allergy and Immunology · doi:10.1111/pai.14038 · Cited by 25
“39 Consequently, a healthy immune system balances attack and tolerance mechanisms, developing regulatory pathways to prevent excessive immune responses to self or harmless anti - gens.”
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The fetal programming effect of maternal immune activation (MIA) on the offspring’s immune system
Hofsink, N., Groenink, L., & Plösch, T. (2024) · Seminars in Immunopathology · doi:10.1007/s00281-024-01023-8 · Cited by 25
“The mother’s immune system must protect against pathogens and be able to tolerate and prevent immunological-medi-ated harm to the fetus.”
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“The study arms were (1) SP, (2) single dose MQ (MQ full), and (3) split dose over 2 days MQ (MQ split).”
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Self-citationInfection in the Developing Brain: The Role of Unique Systemic Immune Vulnerabilities
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Immunological mechanisms of inducing HIV immunity in infants
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COVID-19 in Children: A Review and Parallels to Other Hyperinflammatory Syndromes
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Lactoferrin and Immunoglobulin Concentrations in Milk of Gestational Diabetic Mothers
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Harnessing Cellular Immunity for Vaccination against Respiratory Viruses
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Self-citationVaccination of Term and Preterm Infants
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“The newborn is transferred from a sterile environment to an external environment colonized by microorganisms and in contact with different antigens (5).”
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Secreted IgM modulates IL-10 expression in B cells
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Protecting the Offspring, the Gift of Maternal Immunization: Current Status and Future Perspectives
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“…factors (TF) for TH1 ( TBX21 ) or TH17 ( RORC ) cells, but the TH2 TFs GATA-3 and signal transducer and activator of transcription ( STAT) 6 were present in all SCs, and were especially upregulated in CD4_T MAIT SC. CD4_T REG SC included regulatory T cell-related transcripts, such as…”
Targeting the Toll-like receptor pathway as a therapeutic strategy for neonatal infection
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BackgroundSelf-citationFrom infancy and beyond… ensuring a lifetime of hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccine-induced immunity
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Self-citationHealthy preterm newborns: Altered innate immunity and impaired monocyte function
Biasi, S. D., Neroni, A., Nasi, M., Tartaro, D. L., Borella, R., Gibellini, L., Lucaccioni, L., Bertucci, E., Lugli, L., Miselli, F., et al. (2023) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.202250224 · Cited by 14
Ontogeny of cytokine responses to PHA from birth to adulthood
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Serum Exosomes from Newborn Piglets Restrict Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus Infection
Chen, J., Jin, L., Yan, M., Yang, Z. X., Wang, H., Geng, S., Gong, Z., & Liu, G. (2019) · Journal of Proteome Research · doi:10.1021/acs.jproteome.9b00195 · Cited by 14
Dobbs, K. R., Embury, P., Koech, E., Ogolla, S., Munga, S., Kazura, J. W., & Dent, A. E. (2021) · Immunity & Ageing · doi:10.1186/s12979-021-00223-2 · Cited by 13
Zika Virus Infects Newborn Monocytes Without Triggering a Substantial Cytokine Response
Yoshikawa, F. S. Y., Pietrobon, A. J., Branco, A. C. C. C., Pereira, N. Z., Oliveira, L. M. D. S., Machado, C. M., Duarte, A. J. D. S., & Sato, M. N. (2019) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiz075 · Cited by 14
van Bilsen, J. H. M., Dulos, R., van Stee, M. F., Meima, M. Y., Rankouhi, T. R., Jacobsen, L. N., Kvistgaard, A. S., Garthoff, J. A., Knippels, L. M. J., Knipping, K., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.00644 · Cited by 14
“The immaturity of the immune system is thought to be an important factor for the increased rate of neonatal infections especially when born preterm but the basis for this is not fully understood (12), although the maturation of the neutrophil and endothelial adhesion function are thought to contribute significantly to…”
BackgroundRamos, L., Lunney, J. K., & Juarrero, M. G. (2020) · Disease Models & Mechanisms · doi:10.1242/dmm.045740 · Cited by 14
“Since birth is likely to occur in a healthcare setting, vaccination against TB at this time would facilitate vaccination coverage and help decrease new infections in neonates and children (Kollmann et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialRisk factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in the pediatric population
Noguez, M. M., Rivas-Ruíz, R., Roy-García, I. A., Pacheco-Rosas, D. O., Moreno-Espinoza, S., & Flores-Pulido, A. A. (2021) · Boletín Médico del Hospital Infantil de México · doi:10.24875/bmhim.20000263 · Cited by 14
The ability of the neonatal immune response to handle SARS-CoV-2 infection
Götzinger, F., Santiago, B., Fumadó, V., Brinkmann, F., & Tebruegge, M. (2021) · The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s2352-4642(21)00002-x · Cited by 14
Robust health-score based survival prediction for a neonatal mouse model of polymicrobial sepsis
Brook, B., Harbeson, D. J., Amenyogbe, N., Ben-Othman, R., Kollmann, T. R., & Aniba, R. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218714 · Cited by 13
Self-citationNeonatal sepsis and cardiovascular dysfunction I: mechanisms and pathophysiology
Duignan, S. M., Lakshminrusimha, S., Armstrong, K. R., de Boode, W. P., EL-Khuffash, A. F., Franklin, O., Molloy, E. J., de Boode, W. P., Plötz, F. B., Strunk, T., et al. (2023) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-023-02926-2 · Cited by 13
“99,100 In vitro studies have demonstrated signi fi cant depression of adult myocyte cells with increasing levels of TNF-alpha and IL-1-beta.”
Deshmukh, H. S., Whitsett, J. A., Zacharias, W. J., Way, S. S., Martinez, F. D., Mizgerd, J. P., Pryhuber, G., Ambalavanan, N., Bacharier, L. B., Natarajan, A. R., et al. (2024) · Pediatric Pulmonology · doi:10.1002/ppul.27357 · Cited by 13
“The newborn infant's immune system is already partially programmed in utero by the infections and immune responses that have occurred in their mother [26].”
Recent progress in immune‐based interventions to prevent HIV‐1 transmission to children
Voronin, Y., Jani, I. V., Graham, B. S., Cunningham, C. K., MOFENSON, L. M., Musoke, P., Permar, S. R., & Scarlatti, G. (2017) · Journal of the International AIDS Society · doi:10.1002/jia2.25038 · Cited by 13
“The immune responses of infants and young children are often more robust than adults and may have a broader unmodified repertoire of T-cells and B-cells that could more effectively be primed by vaccination [20].”
BackgroundTallmadge, R. L., Wang, M., Sun, Q., & Felippe, M. J. B. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202646 · Cited by 13
Altendahl, M., Afshar, Y., Maurice, A. D. S., Fajardo, V. M., & Chu, A. (2020) · NeoReviews · doi:10.1542/neo.21-12-e783 · Cited by 13
“(5)(20)(21)(22) Götzinger et al found that infants younger than”
Ontogeny of plasma cytokine and chemokine concentrations across the first week of human life
Smolen, K. K., Plotkin, A. L., Shannon, C. P., Idoko, O. T., Pak, J., Darboe, A., van Haren, S. D., Amenyogbe, N., Tebbutt, S. J., Kollmann, T. R., et al. (2021) · Cytokine · doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2021.155704 · Cited by 13
“Human neonatal antigen-presenting cells demonstrate reduced stimulusinduced production of Th1- and Th17 -type cytokines coupled with preserved production of Th2 -type cytokines, contributing to an anti-inflammatory environment in utero that reduces the risk of abortion or pre-term delivery[46].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSrividhya, D., Korlimarla, A., Ravikumar, G., Snijesh, V. P., Kaku, S. M., & Visweswariah, A. M. (2022) · Birth Defects Research · doi:10.1002/bdr2.2119 · Cited by 15
Muñoz, F. M., Damme, P. V., Dinleyici, E. Ç., Clarke, E., Kampmann, B., Heath, P. T., Levy, O., Leuridan, E. E., Cutland, C., Meulen, A. S.-T., et al. (2018) · mSphere · doi:10.1128/msphere.00221-18 · Cited by 13
Self-citationImpact of maternal HIV exposure, feeding status, and microbiome on infant cellular immunity
Dzanibe, S., Jaspan, H. B., Zulu, M. Z., Kiravu, A., & Gray, C. M. (2018) · Journal of Leukocyte Biology · doi:10.1002/jlb.mr0318-120r · Cited by 13
Moncunill, G., Dobaño, C., González, R., Smolen, K. K., Manaca, M. N., Balcells, R., Jairoce, C., Cisteró, P., Valá, A., Sevene, E., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.01452 · Cited by 13
Self-citationHsu, H., Boudová, S., Mvula, G., Divala, T. H., Rach, D., Mungwira, R. G., Boldrin, F., Degiacomi, G., Manganelli, R., Laufer, M. K., et al. (2020) · Cellular Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.cellimm.2020.104244 · Cited by 14
“While this promotes the maintenance of fetal-maternal tolerance by limiting pro-inflammatory responses, the unique characteristics of the fetal immune system also contribute to high susceptibility to infections in early life (reviewed in [2, 3]).”
BackgroundNatural maternal immunity protects neonates from Escherichia coli sepsis
Diep, R. E., Adhikari, U., Tezel, K. G., Pham, G. H., Burrell, A. R., Staat, M. A., Nhu, N. T. K., Phan, M., Peters, K. M., Schembri, M. A., et al. (2026) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-026-10225-z · Cited by 13
Sakai, J., Yang, J., Chou, C., Wu, W. W., & Akkoyunlu, M. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.83561 · Cited by 11
“In addition, several types of immune suppressive cells contribute to fetomaternal immune tolerance and to human and murine neonatal suboptimal immunity via the potent anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)–10 ( Kollmann et al., 2017 ; Basha et al., 2014 ).”
New Insights in Immunometabolism in Neonatal Monocytes and Macrophages in Health and Disease
de Jong, R., Tenbrock, K., & Ohl, K. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241814173 · Cited by 14
“disease tolerance is that it is less energetically demanding [6].”
BackgroundJiang, D., Goswami, R., Dennis, M. L., Heimsath, H. J., Kozlowski, P. A., Ardeshir, A., Rompay, K. K. A. V., Paris, K. D., Permar, S. R., & Surana, N. K. (2023) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1283343 · Cited by 13
“…to receive a large number of vaccinations — in the United States, infants ≤ 12 months of age are recommended to receive at least 22 vaccine doses that cover 10 different infectious etiologies (20) — during a time when their microbiotas and immune systems are undergoing dramatic changes (21, 22).”
Li, Y., Zhu, L., Wei, J., Wu, C., Zhao, Z., Norbäck, D., Zhang, X., Lu, C., Yu, W., Wang, T., et al. (2024) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.118165 · Cited by 13
Innate immune response in acute critical illness: a narrative review
Stiel, L., Gaudet, A., Thietart, S., Vallet, H., Bastard, P., Voiriot, G., Oualha, M., Sarton, B., Kallel, H., Bréchot, N., et al. (2024) · Annals of Intensive Care · doi:10.1186/s13613-024-01355-6 · Cited by 13
“They are also highly susceptible to infections, for reasons that are not well understood [132].”
BackgroundEarly life antibiotic exposure and host health: Role of the microbiota–immune interaction
Wang, T., Udomkittivorakul, N., Bonfield, M., Nadeem, A., Gray, J. K., & Deshmukh, H. S. (2020) · Seminars in Perinatology · doi:10.1016/j.semperi.2020.151323 · Cited by 12
Almuzaini, Y. S., Alsohime, F., Alsubaie, S., Temsah, M.-H. A., Alsofayan, ., Alamri, F. A., Alahmari, A., Alahdal, H. M., Sonbol, H. S., Almaghrabi, R., et al. (2021) · Annals of Thoracic Medicine · doi:10.4103/atm.atm_709_20 · Cited by 12
Neonatal neutrophils stimulated by group B Streptococcus induce a proinflammatory T-helper cell bias
Lin, J., Haridas, S., Barenkamp, S. J., Lorenset, L. C., Lee, A. S. E., Schroeder, B. T., Peng, G., & Koenig, J. M. (2017) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/pr.2017.272 · Cited by 13
“(25)), Th2 responses may be suppressed under conditions that promote Th17 cells (26).”
BackgroundOdumade, O. A., Plotkin, A. L., Pak, J., Idoko, O. T., Pettengill, M. A., Kollmann, T. R., Ozonoff, A., Kampmann, B., Levy, O., & Smolen, K. K. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.578700 · Cited by 12
“Early life demonstrates unique immunologic challenges and adaptations related to the transition from an intra-uterine environment and progressive responses to extra-uterine environmental cues (1).”
BackgroundSelf-citationImmunity and immunopathology in early human life
Kollmann, T. R., & Marchant, A. (2017) · Seminars in Immunopathology · doi:10.1007/s00281-017-0657-6 · Cited by 12
Self-citationUnveiling the contributions of immunization for progressing towards Universal Health Coverage
Ota, M. O. C., de Moraes, J. C., Vojtek, I., Constenla, D. O., Doherty, T. M., Cintra, O. A. L., & Kirigia, J. M. (2022) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2022.2036048 · Cited by 14
“Pregnant women and young infants have increased susceptibility to certain infectious diseases and/or are at high risk of experiencing severe disease if infected.(13,14,15) For young infants Figure 2.”
BackgroundVariability of vaccine responsiveness in early life
Pichichero, M. E. (2023) · Cellular Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.cellimm.2023.104777 · Cited by 11
Sepsis shapes the human γδ TCR repertoire in an age‐ and pathogen‐dependent manner
Giannoni, É., Sanchez, G. S., Verdebout, I., Papadopoulou, M., Rezwani, M., Ahmed, R., Ladell, K., Miners, K. L., McLaren, J. E., Fraser, D. J., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.202451190 · Cited by 11
“This vulnerability in early life is not unexpected, given the predominantly naïve phenotype of neonatal immune cells and distinctive immunological challenges at birth and during childhood [2–4].”
Martino, D., Kresoje, N., Amenyogbe, N., Ben-Othman, R., Cai, B., Lo, M., Idoko, O. T., Odumade, O. A., Falsafi, R., Blimkie, T. M., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-52283-9 · Cited by 11
“To devise age-appropriate strategies to reduce mortality during this period of heightenedvulnerability,understandingnewbornimmunityinthe fi rst week is essential 6 .”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Kollmann, T. R., Kampmann, B., Mazmanian, S. K., Marchant, A., & Levy, O.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- MRC Unit the Gambia (GM)
- California Institute of Technology (US)
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (BE)
- Boston Children's Hospital (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kollmann, Tobias R.
- Levy, Ofer
- Venue
- Immunity
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-03
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 350-363
- ISSN
- 1074-7613 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2599501186
- Semantic Scholar
- e51f9b517003c880df24898208e6d4d93bb7cc87
- Cited by
- 478
- References
- 200
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 69 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 15
- FWCI
- 4.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Immunity (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- CaltechAUTHORS (California Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Dépôt institutionnel de l'Université libre de Bruxelles (Université Libre de Bruxelles) (submittedVersion)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council (MR/R005990/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Neonatal and Maternal Infections
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Keywords
- immune ontogeny, neonatal immunity, host defense, immune plasticity, neonatal infection
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Communicable Diseases, Disease Susceptibility, Humans, Immune System, Infant, Infant, Newborn
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