Cognitive biases predict symptoms of depression, anxiety and wellbeing above and beyond neuroticism in adolescence
Open accessAbstract
Background Adolescence represents a period of vulnerability to affective disorders. Neuroticism is considered a heritable risk factor for depression, but is not directly amenable to intervention. Therefore, it is important to identify the contributions of modifiable risk factors. Negative cognitive biases are implicated in the onset and maintenance of affective disorders in adults, and may represent modifiable risk factors in adolescence.Aim(s) This study sought to assess to what extent cognitive biases are able to predict depression, anxiety and wellbeing beyond that of neuroticism in adolescents.Methods Adolescents (N = 99), recruited from Scottish secondary schools (54.5% female; mean age = 14.7), ensured a sample representing the breadth of the mental health spectrum. In line with prevalence estimates, 18% of this sample demonstrated clinical levels of depression symptoms. Cognitive biases of autobiographical memory, self-referential memory, ambiguous scenarios interpretation, facial expression recognition, rumination and dysfunctional attitudes were assessed. Depression, anxiety, and wellbeing were indexed using the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire, Spence Children's Anxiety Scale and the BBC Subjective Wellbeing Scale.Results Regression analyses demonstrated neuroticism to significantly predict depression, anxiety and wellbeing. The addition of cognitive biases resulted in a significant increase of explained variance with final models explaining just over 50% of variances of depression, anxiety and wellbeing.Conclusion These findings demonstrate that cognitive biases explain mental health symptoms over and above that of neuroticism. Depressive symptomology was particularly related to self-referential memory bias, while anxiety was predicted by interpretive bias. The key clinical implication is that targeting specific biases based on diagnostic features may be of particular benefit in alleviating distress and promoting wellbeing.
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Several emotional states and traits, such as neuroticism, negative self-concept (with self-perceptions of worthlessness and uselessness), and negative interpretation or attention biases have been linked to depression.
“Several emotional states and traits, such as neuroticism [235,260,271,278], negative self-concept (with self-perceptions of worthlessness and uselessness), and negative interpretation or attention biases have been linked to depression [261,271,282,283,286].”
From Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature (2021) · cites this paper as [271]
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- Authors
- Smith, E. M., Reynolds, S., Orchard, F., Whalley, H. C., & Chan, S. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- University of Reading (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Smith, Eilidh M
- Chan, Stella WY
- Venue
- Journal of Affective Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-12
- Volume
- 241
- Pages
- 446-453
- ISSN
- 0165-0327 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2887623273
- Cited by
- 83
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5
- FWCI
- 7.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Affective Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- CentAUR (University of Reading) (submittedVersion)
- UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- JMAS SIM
- ESAT College
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Keywords
- cognitive biases, neuroticism, depression, anxiety, well-being, adolescents, interpretation bias, rumination, facial expression recognition, dysfunctional attitudes, modifiable risk factors, mood disorders
- MeSH terms
- Neuroticism, Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Anxiety Disorders, Attitude, Cognition, Depressive Disorder, Facial Expression, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Surveys and Questionnaires, Bias
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