Disrupting Intergenerational Continuity in Harsh and Abusive Parenting: The Importance of a Nurturing Relationship With a Romantic Partner
Open accessAbstract
PURPOSE: Harsh, abusive, and rejecting behavior by parents toward their children is associated with increased risk for many developmental problems for youth. Earlier research also shows that children raised by harsh parents are more likely to treat their own children harshly. The present study evaluated nurturing and supportive behaviors of spouses or cohabiting romantic partners hypothesized to strengthen co-parent relationships and help break this intergenerational cycle of harsh parenting. METHODS: Data come from the Family Transitions Project, a 22-year, 3-generation study of a cohort of over 500 early adolescents (G2) grown to adulthood. During adolescence, observers rated G1 (parent of G2) harsh parenting to G2. Several years later, observers rated G2 harsh parenting toward their oldest child (G3). In addition, G2's romantic partner (spouse or cohabiting partner) was rated by observers on a range of behaviors expected to affect G2 harsh parenting. RESULTS: Romantic partner warmth and positive communication with G2 were associated with less G2 harsh parenting toward G3 (a compensatory or main effect) and when these partner behaviors were high, there was no evidence of intergenerational continuity from G1 to G2 harsh parenting (a moderating or protective effect). G1 harsh parenting slightly decreased the likelihood that G2 would select a supportive spouse or romantic partner (evidence of cumulative continuity). CONCLUSIONS: Romantic partner warmth and positive communication appear to disrupt continuity in harsh and abusive parenting. As appropriate, preventive interventions designed to reduce risk for child maltreatment should include a focus on spousal or partner behaviors in their educational or treatment programs.
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Individuals with histories of maltreatment have demonstrated reduced parental competence, diminished emotional support, and increased harsh or neglectful parenting behaviors.
“Individuals with histories of maltreatment have demonstrated reduced parental competence, diminished emotional support, and increased harsh or neglectful parenting behaviors (122–124).”
From Epigenetic changes associated with multi-generational trauma: characterization, mechanisms, and therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [123]
The Introduction and Discussion (page numbers unavailable) describe intergenerational continuity in harsh parenting: people treated harshly when young may later use harsh parenting themselves. The paper does not establish reduced parental competence, diminished emotional support toward children, or neglectful parenting; its measures focus on harsh behavior, while warmth and support chiefly describe romantic partners. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPaternal maltreatment history has been associated with increased externalizing behaviors in offspring, partially mediated by harsh parenting.
“Paternal maltreatment history has been associated with increased externalizing behaviors in offspring, partially mediated by harsh parenting (123).”
From Epigenetic changes associated with multi-generational trauma: characterization, mechanisms, and therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [123]
The Introduction links harsh parenting to aggressive or antisocial behavior in children, supporting the broad association. But the Methods measure maltreatment by the G1 mother, not a paternal maltreatment history, and the paper examines harsh parenting in the next generation rather than testing whether harsh parenting mediates offspring externalizing behavior. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEvidence suggests involvement of stress-response regulation, neurodevelopmental and emotional processing pathways, and epigenetic remodeling processes in shaping intergenerational outcomes.
“Evidence suggests involvement of stress-response regulation, neurodevelopmental and emotional processing pathways, and epigenetic remodeling processes in shaping intergenerational outcomes (116–124).”
From Epigenetic changes associated with multi-generational trauma: characterization, mechanisms, and therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [123]
The Introduction (page not provided) proposes that a supportive partner may reduce stress and inhibit negative affect, thereby weakening intergenerational continuity in harsh parenting. That supports a psychosocial stress-and-emotion pathway, but the paper does not address neurodevelopmental pathways or epigenetic remodeling, and it does not establish biological stress-response regulation. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredChildhood maltreatment, including abuse and neglect, represents a sustained early-life stressor associated with long-term biological and behavioral changes across generations.
“Childhood maltreatment, including abuse and neglect, represents a sustained early-life stressor associated with long-term biological and behavioral changes across generations.”
From Epigenetic changes associated with multi-generational trauma: characterization, mechanisms, and therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [123]
The Introduction and Discussion (pages not provided) link harsh or abusive parenting in childhood to later aggressive or antisocial behavior and to harsh parenting in the next generation. They do not address long-term biological changes, characterize maltreatment as a sustained early-life stressor, or specifically establish the claim for neglect. (LLM, conf=0.88)
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Geiger, J. M., Schelbe, L. A., Hayes, M. J., Kawam, E., Katz, C. C., & Klika, J. B. (2015) · Child maltreatment · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16327-7_4 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Definitional Elasticity in the Measurement of Intergenerational Continuity in Substance Use
Loughran, T. A., Larroulet, P., & Thornberry, T. P. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12849 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Black, C. F. D. (2021) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12663 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“These findings align with research suggesting that emotionally responsive romantic relationships have the potential to disrupt inter-generational cycles of abuse and neglect (Conger et al., 2013), underscoring the need to better understand factors that contribute to supportive relationships within teenage-headed famil…”
BackgroundResultKopala‐Sibley, D. C., Hayden, E. P., Singh, S. M., Sheikh, H. I., Kryski, K. R., & Klein, D. N. (2016) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12221 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
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Promoting Protective Factors and Strengthening Resilience
Walsh, T. B., McCourt, S. N., Rostad, W. L., Byers, K. D., & Ocasio, K. (2015) · Child maltreatment · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16327-7_9 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Sekaran, V. C., Bailey, A., Kamath, V., Ashok, L., Ravindran, S. K., Kamath, A., & Hegde, A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258306 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“On the other hand, hostile and punitive parenting was also found to be transmitted between generations [27,28].”
BackgroundInfluentialChildhood Abuse and Positive and Negative Relationship Quality in Women: The Role of Depression
Fitzgerald, M., Ledermann, T., Grzywacz, J. G., & Hamstra, C. (2020) · Journal of Relationships Research · doi:10.1017/jrr.2020.6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“childhood abuse with relationship quality The couple relationship may be of particular importance for women in CPS because a high-quality romantic relationship may interrupt the intergenerational transmission of abuse (Conger et al., 2013), whereas a poorer relationship is a risk factor for perpetration of abuse and n…”
BackgroundHitzler, M., Bach, A. M., Köhler‐Dauner, F., Gündel, H., & Kolassa, I. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.836077 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Support from a romantic partner, however, reduces not only stress but protects mental health in postpartum women (25, 47) and can even buffer the effects of CM on the mother-child interaction (39, 48).”
BackgroundHiraoka, D., Miyasaka, M., & Nomura, M. (2019) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2019.1555416 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Langevin, R., Hébert, M., Bernier, A., & Frappier, J. (2022) · International Journal of Child and Adolescent Resilience · doi:10.54488/ijcar.2022.311 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Conger et al. (2013) found that warmth and positive communication between the parents or the parent and their romantic partner was protective against the intergenerational continuity of harsh parenting.”
BackgroundIntergenerational continuity of protective parenting practices in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Jasmine, U. H., Nduna, M., & Nkala-Dlamini, B. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0300160 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Wickrama, T., Merten, M. J., & Terrell, A. (2024) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-023-00597-z · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Findings also supported the developmental–interactional perspective , which includes the notion of intergenerational transmission of relationship behavior (Capaldi & Gorman-Smith, 2003; Conger et al., 2013; Cui et al., 2013).”
Predictors of harsh discipline practices among rural households in Côte d'Ivoire
Kumar, A., Chen, S., Jasińska, K. K., Ogan, A., Nzalé, S. K., & Wolf, S. (2025) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2025.101785 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kaferly, J. G., Furniss, A., & Allison, M. A. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104662 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Fischer, I., Schober, P. S., & Nagengast, B. (2021) · Journal of Family Research · doi:10.20377/jfr-379 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Stressed parents who are worrying about their relationship might not be as responsive to their children’s needs and behave more hostile towards them (Belsky 1984; Conger et al. 2013).”
BackgroundOchoa, O., Restrepo, D., Zapata, C. S., Sierra, G. M., & Torres, Y. (2017) · Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría · doi:10.1016/j.rcp.2017.05.014 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Castro, A., & Sánchez-Vincitore, L. V. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118580 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Golan, Y., & Goldner, L. (2017) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2017.1326107 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“However, a romantic partner’s warmth and positive communication appear to disrupt or diminish this continuity of abusive parenting (Conger et al., 2013; Conger, Schofield, & Neppl, 2012; Jaffee et al., 2013; Thornberry et al., 2012).”
BackgroundFactors Associated with Parents Depression, Anxiety and Stress During COVID-19 Quarantine Process
Arıkan, G., & Acar, B. (2022) · Çocuk ve Gençlik Ruh Sağlığı Dergisi / Turkish Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.4274/tjcamh.galenos.2021.07379 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Unsupportive romantic partner behaviors increase neural reactivity to mistakes
Palmwood, E. N., & Simons, R. F. (2021) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.09.008 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A Prospective Longitudinal Study of Family From Generation to Generation
Bell, L. G. (2018) · The Family Journal · doi:10.1177/1066480718806519 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Intergenerational Transmission of Maltreatment
Akin, B. A., Johnson‐Motoyama, M., Kepple, N. J., & Clark, S. L. (2019) · doi:10.1093/obo/9780195389678-0274 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Intergenerational continuity and stability in early family formation.
Lansford, J. E., Pettit, G. S., Rauer, A., Vandenberg, C., Schulenberg, J. E., Staff, J., Jager, J., Dodge, K. A., & Bates, J. E. (2019) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/fam0000497 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Diferencias en tolerancia a la frustración entre Baby Boomers, Generación X y Millennials
Ramírez, M. T. G., & Hernández, R. L. (2021) · Ansiedad y Estrés · doi:10.5093/anyes2021a12 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Undurraga, C., & Santelices, M. P. (2021) · Terapia psicológica · doi:10.4067/s0718-48082021000300375 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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Summary of Research on Intergenerational Transmission of Child Maltreatment
Schelbe, L. A., & Geiger, J. M. (2016) · SpringerBriefs in social work · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43824-5_3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Trajectories of care leavers according to indicators of psychosocial adjustment: A cohort analysis
Montserrat, C., & Llosada‐Gistau, J. (2024) · Child Protection and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.chipro.2024.100003 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…them and allow them to have positive memories of caring (also in Narayan et al., 2019 and in line with Cyrulnik's ‘ resilience tutor ’ , 2005), and as adults, with the presence of stable, emotionally supportive relationships with partners and positive communication (see Conger et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSchelbe, L. A., & Geiger, J. M. (2016) · SpringerBriefs in social work · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43824-5_5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Understanding resilience and coping in child-headed households in Mutasa District, Zimbabwe
Kapesa, M. J. (2015) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kac, E., Qi, Q., & Ryznar, R. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1769422 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Paternal maltreatment history has been associated with increased externalizing behaviors in offspring, partially mediated by harsh parenting (123).”
Severinsen, Y., Ystrøm, E., Eftedal, N. H., Nygaard, E., Bekkhus, M., Viana, K. M. P., Tsotsi, S., Bølstad, E., & Bjørk, R. F. (2026) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.70082 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Belsky considered the marital relationship to be the most essential support system for parents (Belsky 1984), and meta-analyses have documented a positive association between relationship quality and supportive parenting in general (Conger et al. 2013; Erel and Burman 1995; Taraban and Shaw 2018).”
Fosco, G. M., Ryzin, M. J. V., Albright, C. A., Ha, S., & Feinberg, M. E. (2026) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579426101473 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The first study, from the Family Transitions Project is a prospective intergenerational sample of approximately 290 adolescents from families in Iowa, and used high-quality assessments including survey, interview, and observational methods (Conger et al., 2013; Schofield et al., 2017).”
Points of Leverage: Interrupting the Intergenerational Transmission of Adversity
Schlueter, L. J. (2017) · Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Neoh, M. J. Y., Lieu, A. A., Perinelli, E., Balagtas, J. P. M., Nah, H., Ho, M. R., & Esposito, G. (2023) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12942 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Xu, Y., Liu, Y., Dan, G., & Hongli, G. (2025) · Current Issues in Language Planning · doi:10.1080/14664208.2025.2506331 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This may stem from deeply-rooted educational beliefs shaped by their own upbringing and educational experiences, which tend to undervalue emotional support (Conger et al., 2013).”
Ochoa, O., Restrepo, D., Zapata, C. S., Sierra, G. M., & Torres, Y. (2019) · Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría (English ed ) · doi:10.1016/j.rcpeng.2018.12.006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sethi, C. (2019) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/mgpt-cv38 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Child Maltreatment and Risk for Psychopathology
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Schelbe, L. A., & Geiger, J. M. (2016) · SpringerBriefs in social work · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-43824-5_6
TRANSMISSÃO INTERGERACIONAL DA VIOLÊNCIA FÍSICA CONTRA A CRIANÇA: UM RELATO DE MÃES
Boas, A. C. V. B. V., & Dessen, M. A. (2019) · Psicologia em Estudo · doi:10.4025/psicolestud.v24i0.42647
“…assumiu o papel de protegê-las de agressões, alerta sobre o quanto a existência de uma fonte de apoio nos casos denunciados pode exercer um papel mediador na relação entre o histórico de violência na família de origem e na atual (Conger et al., 2013; Kim & Maguire-Jack, 2014; Milner et al., 2010).”
BackgroundCross-Generational Transmission of MLE Strategies
Tzuriel, D. (2021) · Social interaction in learning and development · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-75692-5_14
Can Sense of Coherence Indicate Resilience and Mitigate the Cycle of Violence in Parenting?
Sawada, I., Kishi, R., & Maruyama, T. (2021) · Open Journal of Nursing · doi:10.4236/ojn.2021.119062 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Negative Beliefs about Parenting and Child Externalizing Behavior: Pre-Parenthood to Early Childhood
White, A. C., Neppl, T. K., & Diggs, O. N. (2024) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-024-02810-5
“Indeed, there is evidence to suggest a positive romantic partner may play an important role in disrupting the transmission of negative behavior over time (Conger et al., 2013; Jeon & Neppl, 2019).”
Self-citationChild maltreatment and mental health- Ayurveda perspective
Karuvanthodi, P., & Jithesh, M. (2024) · Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research and Development · doi:10.22270/ajprd.v12i2.1361
Bowe, C., Thomas, C. J., & Mackey, P. (2025) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-025-01027-9
“Other research positioned a safe and stable partner relationship (Conger et al., 2013), and a strong social support network (Thornberry et al., 2013; Tracy et al., 2018) as safeguards.”
Raw, J. A. L., Heron, J., Oliver, B. R., Gilmour, J., & Midouhas, E. (2025) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.70054
“Supporting this notion, emotional social support has been shown to disrupt the continuity of parental maltreatment (Conger et al., 2013), and reduce parental stress (Armstrong et al., 2005) which may increase positive and decrease negative parenting (Lippold et al., 2018), in turn lowering…”
Vaillancourt, S.-E., Paradis, A., Carle-Trouillard, M., Langevin, R., Hébert, M., & Godbout, N. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.108101
Severinsen, Y., Eftedal, N. H., Ystrøm, E., Nygaard, E., Bekkhus, M., Viana, K. M. P., Tsotsi, S., & Bjørk, R. F. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10939598/v1
- Authors
- Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., Neppl, T. K., & Merrick, M. T.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Iowa State University (US)
- National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (US)
- Corresponding author
- Conger, Rand D.
- Venue
- Journal of Adolescent Health
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2013-10
- Volume
- 53
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- S11-S17
- ISSN
- 1054-139X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5054751
- OpenAlex
- W2097113612
- Cited by
- 94
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 4
- FWCI
- 23.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Adolescent Health (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (200-2011-F-38936)
- U.S. Public Health Service (200-2011-F-38936, DAO17902)
- National Institute of Mental Health (HD051746, MH051361, HD047573, R01MH051361)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (HD051746)
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD047573, HD051746)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD047573, HD051746, HD047573, R01HD051746, R01HD064687)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Keywords
- harsh parenting, abusive parenting, intergenerational transmission of parenting, spousal support, child abuse prevention, early adolescents
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child Abuse, Family Characteristics, Family Relations, Female, Humans, Iowa, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Models, Psychological, Rural Population, Social Class, Social Support, Parenting, Spouses, Adult Survivors of Child Abuse
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