An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development
Abstract
This article addresses the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES), family processes, and human development. The topic is framed as part of the general issue of health disparities, which involves the oft-observed positive relationship between SES and the cognitive, social, emotional, and physical well-being of adults and children. A review of recent research and theory identifies three general theoretical approaches that provide possible explanations for the association between SES and individual development: the social causation, social selection, and interactionist perspectives. Empirical evidence demonstrates support for the social causation view that SES affects families and the development of children in terms of both family stress processes (the family stress model) and family investments in children (the family investment model). However, there also is empirical support for the social selection argument that individual characteristics lead to differences in SES. Especially important, recent research is consistent with an interactionist approach, which proposes a dynamic relationship between SES and developmental change over time. Drawing on the combined set of research findings, the article concludes with the description of an interactionist model that serves as a heuristic for future studies of the links among SES, parenting behaviors, and child development.
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The Interactionist Model highlights reciprocal influences and transactional processes between SES, family interactions, and individual development.
“This model highlights reciprocal influences and transactional processes between SES, family interactions, and individual development (Conger and Donnellan, 2007; Conger et al., 2010), accumulating personal, economic, and social disadvantages or advantages across time and generations.”
From Towards a better understanding of inequity and the psychological processes underlying the intergenerational transmission of socioeconomic status (2024) · cites this paper as Conger and Donnellan, 2007
Some findings support the notion of SES-personality correlation, suggesting that SES influences childhood personality development, personality influences school achievement, and educational and occupational experiences shape personality.
“Some findings support the notion of SES-personality correlation, suggesting that SES influences childhood personality development (11,12), personality influences school achievement (13,14), and educational (15) and occupational (16,17) experiences shape personality and that adult economic attainment may be linked to personality (18,19).”
From Personality, Socioeconomic Status, and All-Cause Mortality in the United States (2010) · cites this paper as [11]
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Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2013) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185634 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
The Specificity Principle in Acculturation Science
Bornstein, M. H. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616655997 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Peverill, M., Dirks, M. A., Narvaja, T., Herts, K. L., Comer, J. S., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2021) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101933 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
KORJA, R., LATVA, R., & LEHTONEN, L. (2012) · Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0412.2011.01304.x · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Ahmed, S. F., Tang, S., Waters, N. E., & Davis-Kean, P. (2019) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000296 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
Chapman, B. P., Roberts, B., & Duberstein, P. (2011) · Journal of Aging Research · doi:10.4061/2011/759170 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
“In these studies, both personality and SES still exert independent mortality risks when confounding is controlled.”
BackgroundInfluentialCui, M., Donnellan, M. B., & Conger, R. D. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1544 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Self-citationPersonality, Socioeconomic Status, and All-Cause Mortality in the United States
Chapman, B. P., Fiscella, K., Kawachi, I., & Duberstein, P. R. (2010) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwp323 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Parenting stress and parent support among mothers with high and low education.
Parkes, A., Sweeting, H., & Wight, D. (2015) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/fam0000129 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Serbin, L. A., Kingdon, D., Ruttle, P. L., & Stack, D. M. (2015) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579415000632 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Risk factors for child maltreatment in an Australian population-based birth cohort
Doidge, J. C., Higgins, D. J., Delfabbro, P., & Segal, L. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.12.002 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Larsson, H., Sariaslan, A., Långström, N., D'Onofrio, B., & Lichtenstein, P. (2014) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12140 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Schenck-Fontaine, A., & Panico, L. (2019) · Demography · doi:10.1007/s13524-019-00833-y · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., Neppl, T. K., & Merrick, M. T. (2013) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.03.014 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationMartin, M. J., Conger, R. D., Schofield, T. J., Dogan, S. J., Widaman, K. F., Donnellan, M. B., & Neppl, T. K. (2010) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579410000374 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationHostinar, C. E., Nusslock, R., & Miller, G. E. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1266647 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Economic stress, parenting, and adolescents’ adjustment during the <scp>COVID</scp> ‐19 pandemic
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Education and Smoking: Confounding or Effect Modification by Phenotypic Personality Traits?
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Luo, S., Liu, Y., & Zhang, D. (2021) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2019.1608196 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Childhood social adversity and risk of depressive symptoms in adolescence in a US national sample
Björkenstam, E., Pebley, A. R., Burström, B., & Kosidou, K. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.01.035 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Khoury, J. E., & Milligan, K. (2019) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715622016 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Kiuru, N., Salmela-Aro, K., Laursen, B., Vasalampi, K., Beattie, M., Tunkkari, M., & Junttila, N. (2025) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-024-01664-8 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
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Poverty and adolescent depressive symptoms.
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“This model highlights reciprocal influences and transactional processes between SES, family interactions, and individual development (Conger and Donnellan, 2007; Conger et al., 2010), accumulating personal, economic, and social disadvantages or advantages across time and generations.”
Sources of perceived stress in people with aphasia: a qualitative study
Jewell, C. C., Bergeron, K., Hunting Pompon, R., Pasque, P. A., & Harnish, S. M. (2026) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2026.2646450 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…may be accentuated by external stressors, such as socio-economic status, unemployment, and the absence of social or marital support, and compounded with premorbid depression and/or post-stroke depression and fatigue (Conger & Donnellan, 2007; Revenson & DeLongis, 2010; Sumner & Gallagher, 2017).”
Brunet, L., Rémeau, M., Houdé, O., & Borst, G. (2026) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.70127
- Authors
- Conger, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2007-01-01
- Volume
- 58
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 175-199
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W2096741943
- Cited by
- 1,935
- References
- 111
- Citations by year
- 2026: 157 · 2025: 178 · 2024: 160 · 2023: 130 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 124 · 2020: 185 · 2019: 99 · 2018: 98 · 2017: 106 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 90 · 2014: 81 · 2013: 67 · 2012: 68
- FWCI
- 4.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 51361, R01MH051361)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA017902, DA 017902)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD047573, HD051746, HD047573, R01HD051746)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
- Keywords
- socioeconomic status, human development, health disparities, family processes, social causation, social selection, interactionist perspective, family stress model, parental behavior, child development, adult development
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Child, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Educational Status, Family, Humans, Individuality, Infant, Psychosocial Deprivation, Social Adjustment, Socioeconomic Factors, Parenting
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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