Increases in loneliness among young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic and association with increases in mental health problems
Open accessAbstract
Purpose Young adults are at high risk for increases in loneliness and mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. The present study examined increases in loneliness in a young adult sample, for whom increases were greater, and association with increases in depression and anxiety. Method Data from 564 young adults (ages 22-29, 60.7% women) were collected in January 2020 (pre-pandemic) and April/May 2020 (during pandemic). Results Loneliness increased from January to April/May and changes in loneliness were greater for females, those with higher perceived social support in January, and those with greater concerns about the pandemic's social impacts. Depression (but not anxiety) increased during this time with changes in loneliness accounting for much of the increase in depression. Conclusions Intervention strategies with young adults need to address loneliness and feelings of reduced social support during this time, especially for those who may have had greater disruption in their social lives.
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Claims the paper makes
7 of 13 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Young adults report the highest levels of loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic.
“with young adults reporting the highest levels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites [2] McGinty, 2020, Psychological distress and loneliness reported by US adults in 2018 and April 2020, JAMA source
The results passage (indexed as Methods |, page unavailable) reports that psychological distress was highest among adults aged 18–29, but gives only an overall loneliness estimate of 13.8%. The paper does not report loneliness by age in the passages found when searching for young adults and age-group loneliness, so the claimed ranking cannot be verified from our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [4] Luchetti, 2020, The trajectory of loneliness in response to COVID-19, Am Psychol source
The Results report that older adults had lower loneliness than both younger and middle-aged adults across the study’s assessments, including those during the pandemic. They do not directly compare younger with middle-aged adults, so the finding does not fully establish that young adults reported the highest levels. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
In cross-sectional data, people who are lonely have about seven times the odds of meeting criteria for moderate-to-severe depression relative to those who are not lonely.
“Cross-sectionally, lonely individuals are nearly 7 times more likely to meet clinical criteria for moderate to severe depression symptoms compared to nonlonely individuals [5].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [5] Killgore, 2020, Loneliness: A signature mental health concern in the era of COVID-19, Psychiatry Res source
- Premisecitation
During the COVID-19 pandemic, young adults face elevated risk for depression and anxiety.
“Young adults particularly are at high risk for mental health problems including depression and anxiety during the pandemic [1,2]”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [2] McGinty, 2020, Psychological distress and loneliness reported by US adults in 2018 and April 2020, JAMA source
The Results passage reports that serious psychological distress in April 2020 was highest among adults aged 18–29 (24.0%), supporting the elevated-risk claim for young adults. The Methods passage says the study measured psychological distress with the Kessler 6 scale, not depression and anxiety separately, so those specific conditions are not established by this source. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
Females showed a steeper rise in loneliness between January and April/May than males did.
“There was a steeper increase in loneliness in females compared to males (interaction-p = .018)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“Women showed steeper increases in loneliness”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
Those with more concern about how the pandemic affected their social relationships experienced a larger rise in loneliness than those with less concern.
“in those reporting higher compared to lower levels of concerns about the pandemic's impact on social concerns in April/May (interaction-p <.001)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“those with greater concerns about COVID-19's impact on their social relationships”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
Loneliness increased from January 2020 to April/May 2020 among young adults.
“Loneliness increased from January to April/May”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“There was a statistically significant increase in loneliness from January to April/May.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“we found small, yet statistically significant, increases in loneliness from January to April/May.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
Young adults who reported higher perceived social support in January had a larger increase in loneliness by April/May than those with lower support.
“in those with higher compared to lower perceived social support in January (interaction-p = .045)”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“young adults who had higher social support in January”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
People with lower perceived social support reported higher loneliness at both time points than those with higher support.
“although those with lower social support had noticeably higher levels of loneliness at both time points”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“those with lower social support did report highest levels of loneliness in both January and Spring”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
- Findingown data
Depressive symptoms rose significantly between January and April/May in this young adult sample.
“Depression (but not anxiety) increased during this time”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“There was a statistically significant increase in depression symptoms.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Depression | 1.63 (1.67) | 1.86 (1.59) | 1.13 | .013 | 1.03, 1.24”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · plain
- Findingown data
No statistically significant change in anxiety symptoms occurred from January to April/May.
“There was no statistically significant change in anxiety symptoms over time”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“The lack of increase in anxiety was unexpected”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Anxiety | 2.12 (1.77) | 2.05 (1.76) | .96 | .386 | .88, 1.05”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
- Premisecitation
Pandemic-related behavioral health consequences are projected to reach their highest point as late as nine months after the outbreak began.
“the negative behavioral health impacts from pandemic are expected to peak up to 9 months after the initial outbreak [12].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationown data
The rise in loneliness explained a substantial portion of the increase in depressive symptoms.
“changes in loneliness accounting for much of the increase in depression”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Changes in loneliness appeared to account for much of the increase in depression as the count ratios for study wave was attenuated and no longer statistically significant after inclusion of loneliness in the model (count ratio = 1.07; p-value = .171).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Results · hedged
- Interpretationown data
The findings' generalizability is constrained by the sample's narrow racial/ethnic composition, online recruitment, many college graduates, and Pacific Northwest location.
“Note, generalizability may be limited due to the limited racial/ethnic diversity of the study sample, the online recruitment approach, the high proportion of college graduates, and the sample originating from the Pacific Northwest.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
- May combine two claims. 6
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLoneliness prevalence during the COVID-19 pandemic has been reported as either roughly unchanged or modestly higher.
“Some studies suggest the prevalence of loneliness has stayed relatively stable, or increased slightly, during the COVID-19 pandemic [2,4]”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 2 sources checked- cites [2] McGinty, 2020, Psychological distress and loneliness reported by US adults in 2018 and April 2020, JAMA source
- cites [4] Luchetti, 2020, The trajectory of loneliness in response to COVID-19, Am Psychol source
The Results report no significant change in mean loneliness across assessments, while the Discussion notes a slight increase among older adults. This supports the broad pattern of stability or a modest increase, but the paper reports loneliness scores rather than prevalence, and the increase was limited to an age subgroup. The indexed passages provide section labels but no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductcitationPerceived social support was assessed with the 12-item Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, which had α = .91.
“Perceived Social Support was measured with the 12-item Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support [9] in January (mean of 12 items; α = .91) and dichotomized for analyses based on the median of the total score (Low: <55; High: 55+) for ease of interpretation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Zimet, 1988, The multidimensional scale of perceived social support, J Pers Assess source
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationClinically elevated depression symptoms were present in 22.5% of the sample in January and 25.2% in April/May, exceeding national young adult averages.
“In both January and April/May, the prevalence of clinically elevated symptoms of anxiety (31.2% and 29.8%, respectively) and depression (22.5% and 25.2%) were higher than national averages with young adults [11].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] Eisenberg, 2007, Help-seeking and access to mental health care in a university student population, MedCare source
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationClinically elevated anxiety symptoms were present in 31.2% of the sample in January and 29.8% in April/May, exceeding national young adult averages.
“In both January and April/May, the prevalence of clinically elevated symptoms of anxiety (31.2% and 29.8%, respectively) and depression (22.5% and 25.2%) were higher than national averages with young adults [11].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] Eisenberg, 2007, Help-seeking and access to mental health care in a university student population, MedCare source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationLoneliness was assessed with the three-item Loneliness Scale, which showed internal consistency of α = .80.
“Past month loneliness was measured with the three-item Loneliness Scale [7] including feeling “that you lack companionship”, “left out”, and “isolated from others” (α = .80).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] Hughes, 2004, A short scale for measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based studies, Res Ageing source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductown dataModels estimating changes in loneliness and mental health controlled for sex, sexual orientation, January age, race/ethnicity, and January education.
“We used mixed-effects models to assess changes in loneliness and mental health outcomes from January to April/May, adjusted for sex, sexual orientation, age in January, dummy codes for race/ethnicity, and education completed as of January.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitationDepressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed with the Patient Health Questionnaire-4, each with α = .88.
“Past month depression (“Little interest or pleasure in doing things”; “Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless”; α = .88) and anxiety (“Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge”,“Not being able to stop or control worrying”; α = .88) were measured with the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 [8].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] Kroenke, 2009, An ultra-brief screening scale for anxiety and depression: The PHQ–4, Psychosomatics source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataConcerns about COVID-19's social impact were measured with three items, which had α = .70.
“COVID-19–related social concerns (“making you feel isolated or alone”, “placing a strain on your social life”, “placing a strain on relationships with those you live with”) was assessed in the April/May survey (mean of three items; α = .70) and dichotomized based on the median (low: <1.67; high: 1.67+), again, for ease of interpretation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe supplemental surveys had completion rates of 75.6% in January and 72.0% in April/May.
“Completion rates were 75.6% in January (conducted on January 6–30 to get updated contact information, current social role statuses, substance use, and mental health) and 72.0% in April/May (conducted on April 21-May 18 to get an update during the COVID-19 pandemic).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, young adults face elevated risk of becoming lonelier.
“Young adults are at high risk for increases in loneliness and mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The pandemic and its mitigation measures have had immediate, unprecedented effects across many life domains, including mental health.
“The COVID-19 pandemic and resulting mitigation policies (e.g., shelter-in-place) are associated with immediate and unprecedented impacts on multiple facets of life including mental health.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Few prior studies have tracked within-person mental health changes from before to during the pandemic.
“although most studies have not examined within-person changes from before to during the pandemic.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Young adulthood is a critical period for interpersonal development, education, and career formation.
“This may be especially true for young adults who are undergoing a critical time of interpersonal development, education, and career building.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Social and physical distancing mandates brought an immediate, fundamental change to Americans' social lives.
“not surprising as public health social/physical distancing mandates had an immediate and fundamental shift for Americans' social lives.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The COVID-19 pandemic has been associated with decreases in positive emotions and quality of life and increases in negative emotions, anxiety, fear, stress, depression, and sleep disturbances.
“mental health has been characterized by decreases in positive emotions and quality of life [5,6,7,8] as well as increases in negative emotions, anxiety, fear, stress, depression, and sleep disturbances [8,9,10,11,12,13,14].”
From At the Peak of the Second Wave of COVID-19, Did Millennials Show Different Emotional Responses from Older Adults? (2022) · cites this paper as [11]
The Results report increased depression among young adults from January to April/May 2020, supporting that part of the claim. They report no increase in anxiety, however, and the passages do not document changes in positive or negative emotions, quality of life, fear, stress, or sleep disturbances. The study’s young-adult sample also does not establish those changes for the population generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEvidence demonstrates the negative psychological impact of continued isolation for young people in particular since their life stage is more intensely shaped by their social environment.
“Certainly, evidence demonstrates the negative psychological impact of continued isolation for young people in particular since their life stage is more intensely shaped by their social environment (i.e. exposure to peers and learning environment) [26–28].”
From Facilitators and barriers to social distancing for young people during the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [26]
The Abstract Results report increased loneliness and depression, but not anxiety, among young adults from January to April/May 2020; changes in loneliness accounted for much of the increase in depression. The introduction describes young adulthood as a critical period for interpersonal development and education. The study does not establish the psychological effects of continued isolation or directly compare young people’s dependence on their social environment with that of other age groups. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHope is associated with life meaning among cancer survivors.
“life meaning among cancer survivors [28-30]”
From A digital, coach-assisted intervention to address the psychosocial needs of young adult cancer survivors: Randomized controlled trial protocol and intervention adaptation process (2024) · cites this paper as [29]
The Methods (Study measures; page unavailable) describes measures of loneliness, depression, anxiety, and social support in young adults. Searches for hope, life meaning, and cancer survivors found no passage addressing an association between hope and life meaning among cancer survivors. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredLoneliness during the pandemic has been associated with a decline in psychological well-being.
“which have been associated with a decline in psychological well-being.40”
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BackgroundSelf-citationLoneliness during COVID-19: Development and influencing factors
Lampraki, C., Hoffman, A., Roquet, A., & Jopp, D. S. (2022) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0265900 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“For instance, to help lonely individuals feel closer to their loved ones, governments as well as mental health professionals should encourage the maintenance of social connections in any possible way, ideally through in-person outside contacts [21,59].”
BackgroundThe mental health and social media use of young Australians during the COVID-19 pandemic
Bailey, E., Boland, A., Bell, I., Nicholas, J., La Sala, L., & Robinson, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19031077 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Weber, M., Schulze, L., Bolzenkötter, T., Niemeyer, H., & Renneberg, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.848645 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“Consistent with previous assumptions and data (4, 12, 53) but inconsistent with others (31), loneliness increased among university students during the pandemic.”
BackgroundResultOkely, J. A., Corley, J., Welstead, M., Taylor, A. M., Page, D., Skarabela, B., Redmond, P. H., Cox, S. R., & Russ, T. C. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18010210 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Various psychosocial consequences of lockdown have also been reported, including higher rates of loneliness [5,6], less social cohesion (particularly in deprived communities) [7], more mental health difficulties, and a decrease in psychological wellbeing [8–10].”
BackgroundPadmanabhanunni, A., & Pretorius, T. B. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18073613 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Loneliness is also a unique predictor of depression [11,12].”
BackgroundUpton, E. L., Clare, P. J., Aiken, A., Boland, V. C., Torres, C. D., Bruno, R., Hutchinson, D. M., Kypri, K., Mattick, R. P., MCBRIDE, N. T., et al. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721001963 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Preetz, R., Filser, A., Brömmelhaus, A., Baalmann, T., & Feldhaus, M. (2021) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968211042109 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Several studies show higher levels of loneliness due to social distancing guidelines resulting in higher levels of mental health problems (Buecker et al., 2020; Killgore et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundUrban green space access, social cohesion, and mental health outcomes before and during Covid-19
Wilson, B., Neale, C., & Roe, J. J. (2024) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2024.105173 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Meaningful activities during COVID-19 lockdown and association with mental health in Belgian adults
Cruyt, E., VRIENDT, P. D., Letter, M. D., Vlerick, P., Calders, P., Pauw, R. D., Oostra, K. M., Rodríguez‐Bailón, M., Szmalec, A., Merchán-Baeza, J. A., et al. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10673-4 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Women had lower mental health than men in this study, which is in line with other COVID-19 studies of mental health in women [13, 19, 20, 22].”
BackgroundResultGraupensperger, S. A., Cadigan, J. M., Einberger, C., & Lee, C. M. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00604-0 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“The rates of loneliness among young adults have also increased more than other adult age groups (Luchetti et al., 2020), especially for young adults with greater COVID-19-related social or relational concerns and those who had more social connectedness prior to the pandemic (Lee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLoneliness During a Nationwide Lockdown and the Moderating Effect of Extroversion
Entringer, T. M., & Gosling, S. D. (2022) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506211037871 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“In addition, one previous study found a link between loneliness and increased depression symptoms in adolescents during the pandemic (Lee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundYoung People's Use of Digital Tools to Support Their Mental Health During Covid-19 Restrictions
Pretorius, C., & Coyle, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2021.763876 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“From the onset of the worldwide restrictions, there have been concerns about the effects that loneliness would have on young people’s mental health (46).”
BackgroundMatos, M., McEwan, K., Kanovský, M., Halamová, J., Steindl, S., Ferreira, N., Linharelhos, M., Rijo, D., Asano, K., Gregório, S., et al. (2021) · Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2601 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“…cases or exacerbation of stress, depression, anxiety, loneliness and sleep problems in the general population (AL van Tilburg et al., 2020; Gloster et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Murphy et al., 2020; Serafini et al., 2020; Wang, Pan, et al., 2020; Wang, Zhang, et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2020).”
BackgroundRhew, I. C., Cadigan, J. M., & Lee, C. M. (2020) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108404 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“There are also concerns about increases in loneliness and their downstream effects during the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic (Killgore et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPatulny, R., & Bower, M. (2022) · Australian Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1002/ajs4.223 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“This is reflected in evidence of increased loneliness during COVID among (largely single) young people (Lee et al., 2020), and people living alone with mental illness (Heron et al., 2022), and new parents in COVID who reported heightened depression from a loss of important support networks (Myers &…”
BackgroundTrends in suicide deaths before and after the COVID-19 outbreak in Korea
Ryu, S., Nam, H. J., Jhon, M., Lee, J., Kim, J., & Kim, S. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0273637 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Minhas, M., Belisario, K. L., González‐Roz, A., Halladay, J. E., Murphy, J. G., & MacKillop, J. M. (2021) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.14624 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…mental health symptoms due to both increased predisposition and higher exposure to psychosocial stressors (e.g., increased loneliness, decreases in perceived social support, and higher intolerance to uncertainty; Cao et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Li & Wang, 2020; Seco Ferreira et al., 2020).”
BackgroundLoneliness unlocked: Associations with smartphone use and personality.
MacDonald, K., & Schermer, J. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103454 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“The two other studies that found significant increases in loneliness had used shorter, three item measures of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Bu et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020), which may capture more of a state feeling of isolation (the three items ask about lack of companionship, feeling isolated from others, and feeling…”
MethodResultInfluentialOn social health: history, conceptualization, and population patterning
Doyle, D. M., & Link, B. G. (2024) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2024.2314506 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Even less aggressive measures, including physical distancing (sometimes referred to as ‘ social distancing ’ ), may strain social health (e.g., Ford, 2020; Heid et al., 2021; Heidinger & Richter, 2020; Kovacs et al., 2021; Krendl & Perry, 2021; Lee et al., 2020; van Tilburg et al., 2020).”
Blendermann, M., Ebalu, T. I., Obisie-Orlu, I. C., Fried, E. I., & Hallion, L. S. (2023) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291723002295 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Pedersen, M. T., Andersen, T. O., Clotworthy, A., Jensen, A. K., Strandberg‐Larsen, K., Rod, N. H., & Varga, T. V. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03655-8 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“, family formation, education, and career-building) reported higher levels of loneliness and anxiety at the beginning of the pandemic [5, 10, 14, 15].”
BackgroundSchäfer, S. K., Fritz, J., Sopp, M. R., Kunzler, A. M., von Boros, L., Tüscher, O., Göritz, A. S., Lieb, K., & Michael, T. (2023) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-023-02603-2 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“While some studies found higher levels of social support to be associated with better mental health [35 – 37], other studies examining a broader set of RFs did not fi nd a signi fi cant association between social support and mental health [13, 38].”
Older migrants and loneliness: scanning the field and looking forward
Fokkema, T., & Ciobanu, R. O. (2021) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-021-00646-2 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“During the coronavirus pandemic, interest in the issue of loneliness among young adults witnessed a revival (Groarke et al. 2020; Lee et al. 2020).”
BackgroundThematic Analysis on User Reviews for Depression and Anxiety Chatbot Apps: Machine Learning Approach
Ahmed, A., Aziz, S., Khalifa, M., Shah, U., Hassan, A., Abd-Alrazaq, A., & Househ, M. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/27654 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“This issue has been exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in a large number of mental health issues [25].”
BackgroundRahiem, M. D. H., Krauss, S. E., & Ersing, R. L. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph181910489 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Hager, N., Judah, M. R., & Milam, A. L. (2022) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-022-00135-z · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Further, pandemic-induced increases in loneliness are associated with a rise in depression among college students (Elmer et al., 2020) and young adults (Lee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundCombating Loneliness with Artificial Intelligence: An AI-Based Emotional Support Model
Sullivan, Y., Nyawa, S., & Fosso Wamba, S. (2023) · Proceedings of the Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences · doi:10.24251/hicss.2023.541 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Loneliness is also linked to early mortality and a number of physical and emotional problems, such as depression and heart disease (Lee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundOkruszek, Ł., Piejka, A., Krawczyk, M., Schudy, A., Wiśniewska, M., Żurek, K., & Pinkham, A. E. (2021) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104103 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Narita, Z. C., Banawa, R. A., Zhou, S., DeVylder, J., Koyanagi, A., & Oh, H. Y. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114362 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Miles, A., Andiappan, M., Upenieks, L., & Orfanidis, C. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245865 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Sample: Canadian and American respondents from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk.”
BackgroundBonsaksen, T., Schoultz, M., Thygesen, H., Ruffolo, M. C., Price, D., Leung, J., & Geirdal, A. Ø. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18062841 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“However, studies conducted during the pandemic have also found increased levels of loneliness among young adults, with increases in depression largely explained by the increase in loneliness [20].”
BackgroundSocially Distant? Social Network Confidants, Loneliness, and Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Bierman, A., Upenieks, L., & Schieman, S. (2021) · Social Currents · doi:10.1177/23294965211011591 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Community samples of young adults in Canada in the United Kingdom also appear to support these concerns, showing increases in loneliness between early in 2020 and later in April and May 2020 (Folk et al. 2020; Lee, Cadigan, and Rhew 2020).”
BackgroundSage, K. D., Jackson, S., Fox, E., & Mauer, L. (2021) · Smart Learning Environments · doi:10.1186/s40561-021-00174-7 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Faria, M. G. D. A., França, K. C. F. G., Guedes, F. C., Soares, M. D. S., Gallasch, C. H., & Kebian, L. V. A. (2021) · Revista de Enfermagem da UFSM · doi:10.5902/2179769264313 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“comparativos entre janeiro de 2020 e maio de 2020 apontou-se aumento estatístico na prevalência de sintomas depressivos.(38) Desse modo, o isolamento social relacionado a população idosa está relacionado ao aumento de casos de depressão, configurando-se um problema de saúde pública.”
BackgroundMurayama, H., Suda, T., Nakamoto, I., Shinozaki, T., & Tabuchi, T. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1094340 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“The recent outbreak of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID19) forced people to socially isolate themselves (7) and to feel lonely (8, 9) as a result of strategies enacted in efforts to reduce the risk of infection.”
BackgroundSmith, K. E., & Pollak, S. D. (2021) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-021-00901-0 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Evidence suggests that both children and adults are experiencing increases in stress, perceived social isolation, depression, and anxiety related to the pandemic (Lee et al., 2020; Li & Wang, 2020; Tull et al., 2020).”
BackgroundWard, M. D., Briggs, R., McGarrigle, C. A., Looze, C. D., O’Halloran, A. M., & Kenny, R. A. (2022) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.5856 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
A network analysis of rumination on loneliness and the relationship with depression
Luo, J., Wong, N. M. L., Zhang, R., Wu, J., Shao, R., Chan, C. C. H., & Lee, T. M. C. (2024) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-024-00350-x · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Villaume, S. C., Stephens, J. E., Nwafor, E. E., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Adam, E. K. (2021) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.06.012 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Impacts on mental health symptoms have been identified both within [13,14] and outside [15] the U.”
BackgroundTorrente, F. M., Yoris, A., Low, D. M., López, P. L., Bekinschtein, P., Vázquez, G. H., Manes, F. F., & Cetkovich, M. (2021) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.1065 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Nigg, C., Petersen, E., & Macintyre, T. E. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.102009 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Young adults’ coping strategies against loneliness during the COVID-19-related quarantine in Greece
Golemis, A., Voitsidis, P., Parlapani, E., Nikopoulou, V. A., Tsipropoulou, V., Karamouzi, P., Giazkoulidou, A., Dimitriadou, A., Kafetzopoulou, C., Holeva, V., et al. (2021) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daab053 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Cao, S., Zhu, Y., Li, P., Zhang, W., Ding, C., & Yang, D. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.801241 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“For both young adolescents and emerging adults, additional social support is quite necessary when facing increased social isolation and confinement during the COVID-19 pandemic (Lee et al., 2020; Loades et al., 2020).”
Impact of loneliness on diurnal cortisol in youth
Jopling, E., Rnic, K., Tracy, A., & LeMoult, J. (2021) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105345 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Asper, M. M., Osika, W., Dalman, C., Pöllänen, E., Simonsson, O., Flodin, P., Sidorchuk, A., Marchetti, L., Awil, F., Castro, R., et al. (2022) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2022.587 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Cascalheira, C. J., McCormack, M., Portch, E., & Wignall, L. (2021) · Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2021.100342 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“This age range was selected because there is evidence that young adults report more stress in relation to COVID-19, and as a group they have received less scholarly attention despite facing many transitions and uncertainties related to sex and sexuality.(26,27) Data were from 565 participants drawn from an anonymous,…”
BackgroundLiving well in your local neighbourhood: The value of bumping and gathering places
Banwell, K., & Kingham, S. (2022) · Wellbeing Space and Society · doi:10.1016/j.wss.2022.100124 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Chernova, A., Frajo-Apor, B., Pardeller, S., Tutzer, F., Plattner, B., Häring, C., Holzner, B., Kemmler, G., Marksteiner, J., Miller, C., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.766261 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“This phenomenon of young people becoming increasingly lonely has been observed before (55) and during the COVID-19 pandemic (11, 52, 84) and is a matter of public concern.”
BackgroundLoneliness and multiple health domains: associations among emerging adults
Perez, L. G., Siconolfi, D. E., Troxel, W., Tucker, J. S., Seelam, R., Rodriguez, A., Shih, R. A., & D’Amico, E. J. (2022) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-021-00267-1 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Rudert, S. C., Gleibs, I. H., Gollwitzer, M., Häfner, M., Hajek, K. V., Harth, N. S., Häusser, J. A., Imhoff, R., & Schneider, D. (2021) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000457 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The impact of social isolation on health and behavior in Drosophila melanogaster and beyond
Vora, A., Nguyen, A. D., Spicer, C., & Li, W. (2022) · Brain Science Advances · doi:10.26599/bsa.2022.9050016 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Magid, K., Henson, S. J. S., Castro, C. M., Smith, B. J., Chamberlain, C. E. W., & Levens, S. M. (2023) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-023-10204-y · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Young adulthood is a particularly vulnerable time to experience social distancing because this is a critical period of interpersonal development and the formation of a support network outside one’s family or school group [51].”
BackgroundHomans, N. C., & Vroegop, J. L. (2021) · Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology · doi:10.1002/lio2.578 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“As some studies already show an increase of loneliness, also because of the other safety measures taken by governments, this is something to seriously consider during this pandemic.(2,3) The potential negative impact of face masks on communication in general has recently been appointed in the popular press and in scie…”
BackgroundSo, C., & Fiori, K. L. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111405 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Skinner, A. T., Çiftçi, L., Jones, S., Klotz, E., Ondrušková, T., Lansford, J. E., Alampay, L. P., Al‐Hassan, S. M., Bacchini, D., Bornstein, M. H., et al. (2022) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci11020075 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“…adult population is especially vulnerable; although clinical levels of internalising symptoms were higher than national averages among young adults even before the pandemic began, significant increases were reported by young adults as early as 1–2 months after the pandemic began (Lee et al. 2020).”
BackgroundHen, M., Shenaar‐Golan, V., & Yatzker, U. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.865435 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Further studies that examined adults’ mental health following the pandemic revealed an increase in loneliness and symptoms of depression mostly in females (7), anxiety and circadian rhythm dysregulation (8), stress, suicide, and substance use mostly in men (9).”
BackgroundStevens, G. W. J. M., Büyükcan-Tetik, A., Maes, M., Weinberg, D., Vermeulen, S., Visser, K., & Finkenauer, C. (2022) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3179 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…when comparing a pre‐COVID‐19 assessment with an assessment during the COVID‐19 pandemic (Breaux et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2021; De France et al., 2021; Gadassi Polack et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2020; Magson et al., 2021; Munasinghe et al., 2020; Rogers et al., 2021; Thorisdottir et al., 2021).”
BackgroundResultSuicidal attempt and suicidal ideation during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to previous years
Jerónimo, M. A., Piñar, S., Samos, P., González, A. M., Bellsolà, M., Sabaté, A., Caballero, J. L., Aliart, X., Martín‐Lopez, L. M., Aceña, R. M., et al. (2021) · Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental · doi:10.1016/j.rpsm.2021.11.004 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Guazzini, A., Pesce, A., Gino, F., & Duradoni, M. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs12070228 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Therefore, in line with the Need to Belong Theory and its latest developments [32–34], loneliness has been observed to have severely increased during the pandemic [35], despite the ICT support in helping adolescents and young adults maintain and safeguard some group membership and identification (e.”
BackgroundRestrepo, J. E., Quirama, T. C., & Cruz, R. Z. (2022) · Ciencia y enfermería/Ciencia y enfermería · doi:10.29393/ce28-19sdjr30019 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Silvers, J. A., & Peris, T. S. (2023) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13776 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Listernick, Z. I., & Badawy, S. M. (2021) · Pediatric Health Medicine and Therapeutics · doi:10.2147/phmt.s315887 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Other studies have also shown that social isolation is associated with increase in depressive symptoms.(19,20) Lack of socialization and confinement to one’s home clearly affected the mental health of young individuals.”
Virtual learning experiences in population health nursing course during the COVID‐19 pandemic
Manakatt, B. M., Carson, Z. W., Penton, R., & DeMello, A. S. (2021) · International Nursing Review · doi:10.1111/inr.12725 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“These reports corroborated emerging COVID-19 literature, which indicated increased loneliness and mental health distress among youth and young adults (Lee et al., 2020).”
ResultSavcı, C., Akıncı, A. Ç., & Keles, F. (2021) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2021.105226 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Harp, N. R., & Neta, M. (2022) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104333 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Although many reports indicate that loneliness increased during the pandemic (Bu et al., 2020; Killgore et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Tilburg et al., 2021; but also see Luchetti et al., 2020), the degree to which individuals experienced loneliness during the early pandemic varied as a function of…”
BackgroundRodríguez-Fernández, P., González‐Santos, J., Santamaría‐Peláez, M., Cámara, R. S., & Gonzalez-Bernal, J. J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18115809 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“This study is the first to explore the occupational balance of young adults during the pandemic, but despite the lack of research in this field, factors related to mental health [36], lifestyle [13,37], emotional distress [11], loneliness [38], behavior and well-being patterns [12] have been studied in this population.”
BackgroundThe effects of meditation on individuals facing loneliness: a scoping review
Saini, G. K., Haseeb, S. B., Taghi-Zada, Z., & Ng, J. Y. (2021) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-021-00585-8 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“As such, negative behavioural health impacts associated with the pandemic posed a threat of worsening after the initial outbreak, including loneliness, which can cause increases in depressive symptoms [16].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMégalakaki, O., & Kokou‐Kpolou, C. K. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02246-w · Cited by 25 · see citing works
On Our Own: Social Distance, Physical Loneliness, and Structural Isolation in the COVID-19 Pandemic
Klinenberg, É., & Leigh, J. K. (2023) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spad003 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Factors contributing to adolescents’ COVID-19-related loneliness, distress, and worries
Christ, C. C., & Gray, J. M. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02752-5 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“One additional contributor to the increase in anxiety and depression is the loneliness resulting from physical distancing efforts meant to reduce the spread of COVID-19 (Lee et al., 2020; Ruggieri et al., 2021).”
Coulaud, P.-J., Jesson, J., Bolduc, N., Ferlatte, O., Jenkins, E., Bertrand, K., Salway, T., Jauffret‐Roustide, M., & Knight, R. (2022) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-022-01000-1 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“, episodes of quarantine, closure of schools and businesses, limits on social gathering) (Glowacz & Schmits, 2020; Lee et al., 2020; Wathelet et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2021).”
BackgroundArslan, G., & Coşkun, M. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221139721 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“High levels of loneliness worsen the adverse effect of coronavirus-related stressors on psychological health in young people (Lee et al., 2020), but resilient mindset comes out as a signi fi cant healing component against the harmful effects of loneliness as well (Labrague et al., 2021;…”
BackgroundChanges in depressive and anxiety symptoms during COVID-19 in children from the PROGRESS cohort
McGuinn, L. A., Rivera, N. R., Osorio-Valencia, E., Schnaas, L., Hernández-Chávez, C., DeFelice, N., Harari, H. C., Klein, D. N., Wright, R. J., Téllez‐Rojo, M. M., et al. (2022) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-022-02379-z · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Though effective in reducing transmission, these preventative measures have contributed to social isolation and loneliness among several populations,(1) leading to the new onset of or potentially further exacerbating mental health symptoms.(2) The pandemic has posed a particular threat to the mental health of children…”
Ypsilanti, A., Mullings, E. L., Hawkins, O., & Lazuras, L. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.08.031 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lee, C. M., Cadigan, J. M., & Rhew, I. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lee, Christine M.
- Venue
- Journal of Adolescent Health
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-11
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 714-717
- ISSN
- 1054-139X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7576375
- OpenAlex
- W3092376919
- Cited by
- 526
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 85 · 2023: 127 · 2022: 123 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 35.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Adolescent Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Keywords
- loneliness, young adults, COVID-19 pandemic, depression, anxiety, perceived social support, gender differences, social isolation
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adult, Mental Disorders, Depression, Female, Humans, Loneliness, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Mental Health, Pneumonia, Viral, Social Isolation, Washington, Coronavirus Infections, Young Adult, Pandemics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-05.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-05.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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