Facilitators and barriers to social distancing for young people during the COVID-19 pandemic

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The qualitative analytic approach was informed by a review by McGowan and colleagues recommending flexible application of behaviour change theory in qualitative work.

“The qualitative analytic approach was informed by a review undertaken by McGowan and colleagues [19], which recommends that behaviour change theory should be applied flexibly in qualitative work, to ensure that codes and prospective themes are not limited by the framework applied.”

• cites [19] McGowan LJ, Powell R, French DP. How can use of the Theoretical Domains Framework be optimized in qualitative research? A rapid systematic review. Br J Health Psychol. 2020;25(3):677–94. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The qualitative analysis used reflexive thematic analysis framed by a subtle realist approach.

“Reflexive thematic analysis [16, 17], framed by a subtle realist approach [18], was used to inductively code and develop subthemes.”

• cites [16] Braun V, Clarke V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006;3(2):77–101. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [17] Braun V, Clarke V. Thematic analysis. In: Cooper HE, Camic PM, Long DL, Panter AT, Rindskopf DE, Sher KJ, editors. APA handbook of research methods in psychology, Vol 2: Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological. American Psychological Association; 2012. p. 57–71. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [18] Mays N, Pope C. Assessing quality in qualitative research. BMJ. 2000;320(7226):50–2. sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Young people often have large social circles and are at a developmental stage in which social interactions and relationship building are considered important.

“Young people often have large social circles and are at a developmental stage in which social interactions and relationship building are considered important [7].”

• cites [7] Orben A, Tomova L, Blakemore SJ. The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2020;4(8):634–40. sourcePartly supported

  In “Adolescence is a sensitive period of social development” (page not provided), the paper says peer interactions become increasingly important and adolescents form more complex peer relationships. It discusses social networks but does not establish that young people often have large social circles. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A first step in understanding which interventions are appropriate to generating behaviour change is to identify the COM factors that the intervention needs to target.

“In line with the BCW intervention development tool, a first step in understanding which interventions are appropriate to generating behaviour change (in this context we refer to the change in or maintenance of social distancing behaviour) is to identify the COM factors that the intervention needs to target [10, 11].”

• cites [10] Michie S, Van Stralen MM, West R. The behaviour change wheel: a new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement Sci. 2011;6(1):1–2. sourceSupported
• cites [11] West R, Michie S, Rubin GJ, Amlôt R. Applying principles of behaviour change to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Nat Hum Behav. 2020;4(5):451–9. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Behaviour change occurs when Capability, Motivation, and Opportunity factors favour enactment of a new or alternative behaviour over other competing behaviours.

“Behaviour change occurs when Capability, Motivation, and Opportunity factors favour enactment of a new/alternative behaviour over other competing behaviours [10].”

• cites [10] Michie S, Van Stralen MM, West R. The behaviour change wheel: a new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement Sci. 2011;6(1):1–2. sourcePartly supported

  The Methods section (page unavailable) describes capability, opportunity, and motivation as interacting to generate behaviour, and says changing these components can achieve a behavioural target. It does not describe change as occurring when they favour a new behaviour over competing behaviours; that comparative condition is not supported by our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The survey items were guided by the COM-B model to provide a theoretical framework a priori.

“The survey items were guided by the COM-B model [10], to provide a theoretical framework a priori, and were deemed relevant given the applications of the model in relevant contexts [11].”

• cites [10] Michie S, Van Stralen MM, West R. The behaviour change wheel: a new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement Sci. 2011;6(1):1–2. sourceSupported
• cites [11] West R, Michie S, Rubin GJ, Amlôt R. Applying principles of behaviour change to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Nat Hum Behav. 2020;4(5):451–9. sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Recent research has indicated specific challenges faced by young people during the pandemic related to isolation, loneliness and anxiety, which may impact on behaviours related to social distancing.

“Recent research has indicated specific challenges faced by young people during the pandemic related to isolation, loneliness and anxiety [7, 9], which may impact on behaviours related to social distancing.”

• cites [7] Orben A, Tomova L, Blakemore SJ. The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2020;4(8):634–40. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction and 'Adolescence is a sensitive period of social development' section describe reduced peer contact during COVID-19 distancing as a potential challenge for adolescents, and discuss loneliness as a mental-health risk factor. The paper does not establish pandemic-related anxiety in young people; its explicit discussion of increased anxiety concerns socially isolated rodents. It also does not establish that these challenges affect young people's social-distancing behaviour. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [9] Northern Ireland Youth Forum. Our Voices Aren’t in Lockdown. Northern Ireland Youth Forum Summer Report. Northern Ireland: NIYF; 2020. Available from: http://www.niyf.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Voices-inLockdown-Draft-140820-003.pdf. Cited June 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Young people may be more influenced by their peers, which may make adhering to social distancing regulations difficult if other members of their social groups do not comply.

“Young people may be more influenced by their peers, which may make adhering to social distancing regulations difficult should other members of their social groups not comply with guidelines [7].”

• cites [7] Orben A, Tomova L, Blakemore SJ. The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2020;4(8):634–40. sourcePartly supported

  The section “Adolescence is a sensitive period of social development” (page not provided) says peer influence is heightened in adolescence, supporting the first part of the claim. The passages on physical distancing discuss reduced peer contact, but do not say that peers’ failure to follow guidelines makes young people less likely to comply. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Social distancing alone reduced H1N1 cases by a median of 23% in the general population; combined with other measures, the median reduction rose to 75%.

“a review of studies on the effect of social distancing alone on H1N1 also found a median reduction rate of 23% of cases in the general population; combined with other measures this rose to a median reduction of 75% [6].”

• cites [6] Ahmed F, Zviedrite N, Uzicanin A. Effectiveness of workplace social distancing measures in reducing influenza transmission: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2018;18(1):1–3. sourcePartly supported

  The Results passage reports the stated 23% and 75% median reductions in the general population, but these are modeled estimates for workplace social distancing at R0 ≤ 1.9. The 75% figure specifically concerns combination with other nonpharmaceutical interventions; the citing sentence omits those conditions and describes the modeled influenza attack-rate reductions as H1N1 case reductions. No page number is supplied for the passage. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Behaviour Change Wheel can be used as a guiding tool to support systematic selection of intervention functions and allied policy supports.

“The Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) can be used as a guiding tool to support this [10, 11].”

• cites [10] Michie S, Van Stralen MM, West R. The behaviour change wheel: a new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement Sci. 2011;6(1):1–2. sourceSupported
• cites [11] West R, Michie S, Rubin GJ, Amlôt R. Applying principles of behaviour change to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Nat Hum Behav. 2020;4(5):451–9. sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Deductive mapping of subthemes to COM components can facilitate public health professionals in identifying intervention functions, policy categories, and behaviour change techniques according to the Behaviour Change Wheel.

“Deductive mapping of the more focused subthemes to COM components can facilitate public health professionals in the identification of intervention functions, policy categories, and behaviour change techniques according to the Behaviour Change Wheel [10].”

• cites [10] Michie S, Van Stralen MM, West R. The behaviour change wheel: a new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement Sci. 2011;6(1):1–2. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

As reported in Berry et al. [12], while a large number of respondents reported that they social distance frequently, a substantial proportion reported that they do not.

“As reported in Berry et al. [12], while a large number of respondents reported that they social distance frequently, a substantial proportion reported that they do not.”

• cites Berry et al. [12] Berry E, Bradley D, Tully MA, Allen S, Mulvenna M, Dempster M, et al. Exploring the facilitators and barriers to following COVID-19 guidelines on social distancing among young people in Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland Report No: 2. Belfast: Public Health Agency; 2020. Available from: https://research.hscni.net/sites/default/files/BCG%20Report%202_07.10.2020.pdf sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adherence to social distancing guidelines is generally lower in younger populations.

“This is consistent with previous evidence indicating that adherence to social distancing guidelines is generally lower in younger populations [23, 24].”

• cites [23] Atchison C, Bowman LR, Vrinten C, Redd R, Pristerà P, Eaton J, et al. Early perceptions and behavioural responses during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional survey of UK adults. BMJ Open. 2021;11(1):e043577. sourceSupported
• cites [24] Durand H, Bacon SL, Byrne M, Farrell K, Kenny E, Lavoie KL, et al. Adherence to physical distancing guidance in Ireland: a nationally representative analysis from the International COVID-19 Awareness and Responses Evaluation (iCARE) study. HRB Open Res. 2021;4(36):36. sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Demographics: Age) report that adults aged 25–34 were least adherent to three physical-distancing measures, supporting lower adherence in one younger group. The broader claim needs qualification: adults aged 18–24 were most adherent to two self-isolation measures, and the paper reports no other notable age differences. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Using the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) as an extended theoretical framework, the barriers nested within each of the COM components can be targeted through a series of intervention functions and policy supports, which evidence suggests can support behaviour change.

“Using the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW) as an extended theoretical framework [10], the barriers nested within each of the COM components can be targeted through a series of intervention functions and policy supports, which evidence suggests can support behaviour change.”

• cites [10] Michie S, Van Stralen MM, West R. The behaviour change wheel: a new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement Sci. 2011;6(1):1–2. sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This study provides a novel glimpse of the determinants of social distancing among young people living in NI/ROI, providing information relevant for the design of targeted public health interventions using frameworks such as the Behaviour Change Wheel.

“This study provides a novel glimpse of the determinants of social distancing among young people living in NI/ROI, which is visually captured in Fig. 1, providing information relevant for the design of targeted public health interventions using frameworks such as the Behaviour Change Wheel [10].”

• cites [10] Michie S, Van Stralen MM, West R. The behaviour change wheel: a new method for characterising and designing behaviour change interventions. Implement Sci. 2011;6(1):1–2. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Given the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on BAME communities, further research within cohorts of young people from minority ethnic groups is important.

“Given the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on BAME communities [42, 43], further research within cohorts of young people from minority ethnic groups is important.”

• cites [42] Mamluk L, Jones T. The impact of COVID-19 on black, Asian and minority ethnic communities, vol. 20(05). National Institute for Health Research (NHR) report; 2020.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [43] Phiri P, Delanerolle G, Al-Sudani A, Rathod S. COVID-19 and black, Asian, and minority ethnic communities: a complex relationship without just cause. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2021;7(2):e22581. sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

There is a dearth of evidence exploring environmental restructuring in the context of social distancing, which raises an important gap in the pandemic behaviour change literature.

“Despite the speculated benefits of environmental restructuring, there is a dearth of evidence exploring this intervention function in the context of social distancing [35, 36] which raises an important gap in the pandemic behaviour change literature.”

• cites [35] Hagger MS, Smith SR, Keech JJ, Moyers SA, Hamilton K. Predicting Social Distancing Intention and Behavior During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Integrated Social Cognition Model. Ann Behav Med. 2020;54(10):713–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaaa073. sourceSupported
• cites [36] Nivette A, Ribeaud D, Murray A, et al. Non-compliance with COVID-19-related public health measures among young adults in Switzerland: Insights from a longitudinal cohort study. Soc Sci Med. 2021;268(August 2020):113370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113370. sourceCould not verify

  The Discussion mentions environmental restructuring as a possible way to manage low self-control, but it does not assess evidence for that intervention in social distancing. Searches for environmental restructuring and a lack of intervention evidence found no passage identifying the claimed research gap; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Effective peer modelling of social distancing behaviour may consist of peer leaders in community settings or social media influencers demonstrating and promoting this behaviour, rather than politicising this behaviour through authoritarian messaging styles.

“Effective peer modelling of social distancing behaviour may consist of peer leaders in community settings or social media influencers demonstrating and promoting this behaviour, rather than politicising this behaviour through authoritarian messaging styles [37, 25].”

• cites [37] Bonell C, Michie S, Reicher S, et al. Harnessing behavioural science in public health campaigns to maintain “social distancing” in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: key principles. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2020;0(0):1–3. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2020-214290. sourceSupported
• cites [25] Martínez D, Parilli C, Scartascini C, Simpser A. Let’s (not) get together! The role of social norms on social distancing during COVID-19. Plos One. 2021;16(3 March):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247454. sourcePartly supported

  The Theoretical background says people may imitate others’ behaviour and that media coverage showing compliance could help. The Conclusion warns that politicization can erode compliance and recommends highlighting others’ compliance. The paper does not specifically recommend community peer leaders or social media influencers, or compare their modelling with authoritarian messaging styles; no page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other research has indicated that social distancing adherence is lower in men.

“Other research has indicated that social distancing adherence is lower in men [24], further indicating the importance of understanding responses and behaviours among younger men.”

• cites [24] Durand H, Bacon SL, Byrne M, Farrell K, Kenny E, Lavoie KL, et al. Adherence to physical distancing guidance in Ireland: a nationally representative analysis from the International COVID-19 Awareness and Responses Evaluation (iCARE) study. HRB Open Res. 2021;4(36):36. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Hagger and colleagues suggest that the physical restructuring of spaces in a way that provides scaffolding on to how to enact social distancing, alongside consistent cues and reminders, can support social distancing behaviour and may eventually lead to habit-formation.

“However Hagger and colleagues [35] suggest that the physical restructuring of spaces in a way that provides scaffolding on to how to enact social distancing, alongside consistent cues and reminders, can support social distancing behaviour and may eventually lead to habit-formation.”

• cites [35] Hagger MS, Smith SR, Keech JJ, Moyers SA, Hamilton K. Predicting Social Distancing Intention and Behavior During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Integrated Social Cognition Model. Ann Behav Med. 2020;54(10):713–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaaa073. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Since the vaccine rollout commenced late 2020/early 2021, it is possible that perception of risk has decreased, thus influencing transmission-preventative behaviour generally.

“Moreover, since the vaccine rollout commenced late 2020/early 2021, it is possible that perception of risk has decreased, thus influencing transmission-preventative behaviour generally [41].”

• cites [41] Andersson O, Campos-Mercade P, Meier AN, Wengström E. Anticipation of COVID-19 vaccines reduces willingness to socially distance. J Health Econ. 2021;80(September):102530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2021.102530. sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most respondents were female (73%).

“most respondents were female (73%)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most respondents were students (81%).

“and were students (81%)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The majority of survey respondents lived in Northern Ireland (96%).

“The majority of respondents lived in Northern Ireland (96%)”

May combine two claims.

Three psychological Capability barrier subthemes were identified: lack of clear guidance about expected behaviour, challenge of regulating behaviour, and effect of alcohol on ability to maintain behaviour.

“Three subthemes aligned with psychological Capability [42 total comments in total]: 1) ‘Lack of clear guidance about expected behaviour’, 2) ‘Challenge of regulating behaviour’, and 3) ‘Effect of alcohol on ability to maintain behaviour’.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The average age of respondents was 21 years.

“the average age was 21 years”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A total of 477 young people completed the survey.

“A total of 477 young people completed the survey.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Of the 477 survey respondents, 347 provided at least one free-text response.

“Of the total N = 477 survey respondents, N = 347 respondents provided at least one free text response”

May combine two claims.

Young people reported that keeping distance can feel unnatural and strange, which reduces their willingness and intentions to social distance.

“young people reported that keeping distance can feel unnatural and strange, which reduces their willingness and intentions to social distance.”

May combine two claims.

Physical environment has a large impact on young people's perceived ability to keep distance and their capacity to remember to keep distance.

“This subtheme suggests that physical environment has a large impact on young people’s perceived ability to keep distance and their capacity to remember to keep distance.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

May combine two claims.

A number of young people who participated in the current study indicated that they found it difficult to accept the 'reality' of the pandemic, which has resulted in drastic change to day-to-day life, and some found it difficult to integrate the changes in social behaviour because it felt uncomfortable and unusual.

“A number of young people who participated in the current study indicated that they found it difficult to accept the ‘reality’ of the pandemic, which, since the first lockdown ensued has resulted in drastic change to day-to-day life – some young people found it difficult to integrate the changes in social behaviour because it felt uncomfortable and unusual.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

May combine two claims.

Seeing friends or other young people not keeping distance on social media is discouraging as it implies that none of their peers are doing it.

“Seeing friends or other young people not keeping distance from others on social media is also discouraging as it implies that none of their peers are doing it.”

May combine two claims.

A smaller group of young people found it difficult to perceive the risk of not social distancing for reasons including disbelief of the infectiousness and seriousness of COVID-19 and feeling that measures such as forming a social bubble meant they did not have to distance from friends.

“a smaller group of young people found it difficult to perceive the risk of not social distancing for reasons including disbelief of the infectiousness and seriousness of COVID-19 and feeling that measures taken such as forming a social “bubble of people to chat” meant they did not have to distance from friends (participant 344).”

May combine two claims.

Two psychological Capability facilitator subthemes were identified: clarity and consistency of guidelines and instructions, and adapting normal lifestyle behaviour.

“Two subthemes aligned with Psychological Capability [42 total comments in total]: 1) ‘Clear and consistent guidelines’ and 2) ‘Adapting (pre-pandemic) lifestyle behaviour’.”

May combine two claims.

Young people missed being with friends or loved ones in person and expressed feeling lonely because of the lack of in-person contact.

“Young people missed being with friends/loved ones in-person and expressed feeling lonely because of the lack of in-person contact.”

May combine two claims.

This study focuses on a sample of young people, primarily students, who recognise the supports needed to endorse social distancing behaviour, but who experience a range of factors that impede the extent to which they implement this behaviour in daily life.

“This study focuses on a sample of young people, primarily students, who recognise the supports needed to endorse social distancing behaviour, but who experience a range of factors that impede the extent to which they implement this behaviour in daily life.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Subthemes for the final question largely complimented the subthemes identified for current/existing facilitators, with regard to greater clarity of guidelines in different social circumstances, increased environmental supports, increased visibility of the supportive behaviour of others, the need for more enforcement of 'rules', and the importance of knowing the risks of contagion and contraction.

“Subthemes largely complimented the subthemes identified for current/existing facilitators, with regard to greater clarity of guidelines in different social circumstances, increased environmental supports, increased visibility of the supportive behaviour of others, the need for more enforcement of ‘rules’, and the importance of knowing the risks of contagion and contraction.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

May combine two claims.

A number of young people mentioned that they keep distance when they are made to, primarily when staff enforce it or laws are implemented.

“A number of young people also mentioned that they keep distance when they are made to. This primarily related to circumstances when (shop/other) staff enforce it or “implementing laws” (participant 168), in which case the risk of punishment is visible.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

May combine two claims.

Young people reported uncertainty about what social distancing instructions mean in reality, with messages described as vague and contradictory.

“There was uncertainty about what the instructions to social distance mean in reality, with messages described as “vague” (participant 9), and young people also felt like the messages were contradictory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Comments in the 'Sense that nothing (more) can help' subtheme related to the perspective that there is nothing that can make social distancing easier and that distancing from others was common sense.

“The comments that led to the development of this subtheme tended to relate to the perspective that there is “nothing that can make it [social distancing] easier” and that distancing from others was “common sense” (participant 183)”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

May combine two claims.

The majority of young people lived in their family home, suggesting that they do not live alone and rather, are likely to live with parents/guardians.

“Given the demographic information in the sample, the majority of young people lived in their family home, suggesting that they do not live alone and rather, are likely to live with parents/guardians.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Subthemes for the final question were mapped onto all three COM components, with the exception of physical Capability, which did not conceptually align with any of the subthemes generated.

“Subthemes for this question were mapped onto all three COM components, with the exception of physical Capability, which did not conceptually align with any of the subthemes generated (see Table 4).”

May combine two claims.

Environmental cues and reminders and physical prompts facilitated young people's ability to keep a distance from others and reminded them to keep a distance.

“environmental cues and reminders and physical prompts facilitated their ability to keep a distance from others and reminded them to keep a distance from others.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

May combine two claims.

The requirement to maintain physical distance from friends, partners, and family, and the emotional difficulties this caused, further contributed to the wider social challenges experienced by the young people who took part in the study.

“Moreover, the requirement to maintain physical distance from friends, partners, and family, and the emotional difficulties this caused, further contributed to the wider social challenges experienced by the young people who took part in the study.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

May combine two claims.

Young people felt that keeping a distance from others in social settings is easier when public spaces like shops have clear instructions about expected behaviour and when there is consistent guidance from the government on news and social media.

“young people felt that keeping a distance from others in social settings is easier when public spaces like shops have clear instructions about how people are expected to behave and when there is “Consistent guidance from the government on the news and social media” (participant 52).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The content of themes highlight the wider psychosocial challenges experienced by this group, such as the absence of physical affection and feeling jaded by social structures.

“however the content of themes highlight the wider psychosocial challenges experienced by this group, such as the absence of physical affection and feeling jaded by social structures.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some young people felt that alcohol makes it more likely that people will revert to old habits and forget to distance.

“Some young people felt that alcohol makes it more likely that people will revert to old habits and forget to distance.”

May combine two claims.

Two reflective Motivation barrier subthemes were identified: difficulty accepting the change in social behaviour and sense of low risk of transmission or contraction.

“Two subthemes extracted aligned with reflective Motivation [21 total comments in total]: 1) ‘Difficulty accepting the change in social behaviour’ and 2) ‘Sense of low risk of transmission/contraction’.”

May combine two claims.

In the current study, visual cues and reminders, guidance from staff, and premises following guidelines were consistently highlighted as enablers for social distancing.

“Correspondingly, in the current study, visual cues and reminders, guidance from staff, and premises following guidelines were consistently highlighted as enablers for social distancing.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

May combine two claims.

The average age of participants was 21 years old, so the study provides limited insight into the experiences of younger participants aged between 16 and 18 years old.

“The average age of participants was 21 years old, so our study provides limited insight into the experiences of younger participants aged between 16 and 18 years old.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Participants' free-text survey responses accurately reflect their social distancing behaviour and its determinants.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The subsample of 347 respondents who provided free-text comments did not differ significantly from the total sample across relevant demographic factors.

“(this subsample did not differ significantly from the total sample across relevant demographic factors).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The survey was piloted by a representative group of young people to inform further adaptations to support relevance and understanding.

“and was piloted by a representative group of young people to inform further adaptions to support relevance and understanding [15].”

• cites [15] Willis GB, Questionnaire pretesting. The SAGE Handbook of Survey Methodology, vol. 24. London: Sage publishing ltd; 2016. p. 359–81. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The COM-B model provides scaffolding to explore how Capability, Motivational, and Opportunity factors collectively and differentially influence social distancing behaviour among young people.

“The COM-B model thus provides scaffolding to explore how Capability, Motivational, and Opportunity factors collectively (and differentially) influence social distancing behaviour among young people.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The data was coded initially by SA and crosschecked by EB.

“The data was coded initially by SA and crosschecked by EB.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Thoughts and observations were noted throughout the analysis and perspectives and interpretations were discussed during team meetings to support a comprehensive reflexive process.

“Acknowledging the subjective nature of the analytic process, thoughts and observations were noted throughout the analysis and perspectives and interpretations were discussed during team meetings to support a comprehensive reflexive process [20].”

• cites [20] Elo S, Kääriäinen M, Kanste O, Pölkki T, Utriainen K, Kyngäs H. Qualitative content analysis: A focus on trustworthiness. SAGE Open. 2014;4(1):2158244014522633. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The online survey was developed in collaboration with members of the HSC Research and Development Division Behaviour Change Group.

“The online survey was developed in collaboration with members of the HSC Research and Development Division Behaviour Change Group [14]”

• cites [14] Berry E. The Behaviour Change Group: supporting transmission prevention behaviour in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Public Health Agency; 2020. Available from: https://www.publichealth.hscni.net/node/5367. Cited June 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Findings are reported in line with Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research guidelines.

“Findings are reported in line with Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research guidelines in keeping with best practice (Tong, Sainsbury, & Craig, 2007) [22].”

• cites [22] Tong A, Sainsbury P, Craig J. Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups. Int J Qual Health Care. 2007;19(6):349–57. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Northern Ireland, early distancing measures were estimated to have reduced the R rate of transmissions from 2.8 to 0.8.

“In Northern Ireland (NI), early distancing measures were estimated to have reduced the R rate of transmissions from 2.8 to 0.8 [4]”

• cites [4] Department of Health. Modelling data shows social distancing works. Northern Ireland: DoH; 2020. Available from: https://www.health-ni.gov.uk/news/modelling-data-shows-social-distancing-works. Cited June 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In June 2020, in the UK and specifically Northern Ireland, there were reports of large crowds of young people gathering on beaches and other public places, raising concerns that young people were not adhering to social distancing guidelines.

“In June 2020, in the UK and specifically NI, there were reports of large crowds of young people gathering on beaches and other public places raising concerns that young people were not adhering to social distancing guidelines, [8].”

• cites [8] Hallday G. Coronavirus: Call for travel restrictions to halt scenes like this as young people in Northern Ireland urged ‘act responsibly’ during lockdown. Northern Ireland: Belfast Telegraph; 2020. Available from: https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/health/coronavirus/coronavirus-call-for-travel-restrictions-to-halt-scenes-like-this-as-young-people-in-northern-ireland-urged-act-responsibly-during-lockdown-39255476.html. Cited June 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A coding tree was used to ensure that subthemes adequately captured the codes and were valid reflections of the data.

“a coding tree was used to ensure that the subthemes adequately captured the codes and were valid reflections of the data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study aimed to recruit at least 100 participants to support thematic analysis of online survey responses.

“Braun et al. [13] discuss an upper end of 100+ participants to support thematic analysis of online survey responses, and, while this is largely determined by the richness of the data and saturation, we aimed to recruit at least 100 participants.”

• cites [13] Braun V, Clarke V, Boulton E, Davey L, McEvoy C. The online survey as a qualitative research tool. Int J Soc Res Methodol. 2020;16:1–4. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study is pre-registered on AsPredicted.org (reference #45900).

“the study is pre-registered on AsPredicted.org (reference: #45900).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Social distancing is not a particularly strength-, stamina-, or skill-demanding behaviour, and rather could be considered an inaction or a movement to avoid others.

“It could be argued that social distancing is not a particularly strength-, stamina-, or skill-demanding behaviour, and rather could be considered an inaction or a movement to avoid others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The COM-B factors identified in this study can inform the development of tailored interventions using models such as the Behaviour Change Wheel.

“The COM-B factors identified in this study can inform the development of tailored interventions using models such as the Behaviour Change Wheel.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Young people represent a unique demographic group with differing psychosocial needs and experiences from other age cohorts.

May combine two claims.

The factors influencing social distancing behaviour in young people are not mutually exclusive but are interrelated and cumulative in their influence.

“Figure 1 further suggests that each of these factors are not mutually exclusive in the way that they influence behaviour, but rather their influence is interrelated and cumulative.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Young people represent a unique demographic group with differing psychosocial needs and experiences from other age cohorts.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

We cannot extrapolate this assumption to other demographic groups whose physical capabilities may have a bigger role in ability to distance from others.

“Although we cannot extrapolate this assumption to other demographic groups whose physical capabilities may have a bigger role in ability to distance from others.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The mapped subthemes provide direction as to which intervention functions and policy supports can facilitate behaviour change in this context.

“While the purpose of this study was not to propose explicit intervention strategies, the mapped subthemes provide direction as to which intervention functions and policy supports can facilitate behaviour change in this context.”

May combine two claims.

The frequency data reported in Berry et al. [12] suggests that actions of peers, forgetting to keep a distance from others, environmental constraints, and unhelpful emotions contribute to intentions to, or perceived ability to social distance.

“The frequency data reported in Berry et al. [12] suggests that actions of peers, forgetting to keep a distance from others, environmental constraints, and unhelpful emotions contribute to intentions to, or perceived ability to social distance (see Berry et al. [12]).”

• cites Berry et al. [12] Berry E, Bradley D, Tully MA, Allen S, Mulvenna M, Dempster M, et al. Exploring the facilitators and barriers to following COVID-19 guidelines on social distancing among young people in Northern Ireland and Republic of Ireland Report No: 2. Belfast: Public Health Agency; 2020. Available from: https://research.hscni.net/sites/default/files/BCG%20Report%202_07.10.2020.pdfNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Young people may be more inclined to social distance in various social settings if there is available space to maintain distance, if their peers are engaging in this behaviour, if they perceive consequences of not social distancing, and if they have a sense of how to integrate social distancing in a typical social encounter.

“For example, young people may be more inclined to social distance in various social settings, if there is available space to maintain a distance (physical Opportunity), if their peers are engaging in this behaviour (social Opportunity), if they perceive that there are consequences of not social distancing (Motivation), and furthermore if they have a sense of how to integrate social distancing in a”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Young people represent a unique demographic group with differing psychosocial needs and experiences from other age cohorts.

May combine two claims.

This study was conducted during the graduated easing of the first lockdown during the summer of 2020 and thus is reflective of the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, which occurred in this context.

“This study was conducted during the graduated easing of the first lockdown during the summer of 2020 and thus is reflective of the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, which occurred in this context.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

This cross-sectional study restricts the findings to a single snapshot of social distancing perceptions and behaviours at the time data was collected.

“This cross-sectional study also restricts the findings to a single snapshot of social distancing perceptions and behaviours at the time data was collected.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Local and international reports affirm the need to capture the voices of young people to help shape governmental decisions and policy to support engagement and also mitigate the long-term impact of COVID-19 for the younger generation, who are likely to be more harshly affected by the psychosocial and economic repercussions of prolonged periods of lockdown.

“Local and international reports affirm the need to capture to voices of young people to help shape governmental decisions and policy to support engagement and also mitigate the long-term impact of COVID-19 for the younger generation, who are likely to be more harshly affected by the psychosocial and economic repercussions of prolonged periods of lockdown [9, 39].”

• cites [9] Northern Ireland Youth Forum. Our Voices Aren’t in Lockdown. Northern Ireland Youth Forum Summer Report. Northern Ireland: NIYF; 2020. Available from: http://www.niyf.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Voices-inLockdown-Draft-140820-003.pdf. Cited June 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [39] Allam M, Ader M, Igrioglu G. Youth and COVID-19: Response, recovery and resilience. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; 2020. Retrieved from: https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/view/?ref=134_134356-ud5kox3g26&title=Youth-and-COVID-19-Response-Recovery-and-Resilience&_ga=2.1982197.571802095.1625082185-1978122031.1618565226. Cited in June 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

There is a need to rebuild or maintain trust in civil society organisations, which may have decreased for young people as result of unclear decisions, conflicting messages, and frustration.

“There is also a need to rebuild or maintain trust in civil society organisations, which may have decreased for young people (among other demographic groups) as result of unclear decisions, conflicting messages, and frustration [39].”

• cites [39] Allam M, Ader M, Igrioglu G. Youth and COVID-19: Response, recovery and resilience. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; 2020. Retrieved from: https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/view/?ref=134_134356-ud5kox3g26&title=Youth-and-COVID-19-Response-Recovery-and-Resilience&_ga=2.1982197.571802095.1625082185-1978122031.1618565226. Cited in June 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The computer-based survey format limited the extent to which responses could be expanded upon.

“Further qualitative research would be additionally useful in deepening understanding of the themes presented within this study, since the computer-based survey format limited the extent to which responses could be expanded upon.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Approaches to social distancing messaging that deviate from traditional authoritative health communication styles may be more effective at nudging or more explicitly encouraging social distancing behaviour in young populations.

“Such approaches to social distancing messaging deviate from traditional authoritative health communication styles, and may be more effective at nudging or more explicitly encouraging social distancing behaviour in young populations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The findings from this study should be seen as indicative of important trends, but further research to validate the findings is needed.

“The findings from this study should therefore be seen as indicative of important trends, but further research to validate the findings is needed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The prevalence of responses focusing on physical and social Opportunity determinants of social distancing suggests that interventions targeting these factors should be prioritised.

“The prevalence of responses focusing on physical and social Opportunity determinants of social distancing suggests that interventions targeting these factors should be prioritised.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Generalizing the findings to young people in the Republic of Ireland should be treated with caution.

“Even though many findings may be similar for young people in the Republic of Ireland, generalizing such findings should be treated with caution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Transmission-preventative and social behaviours have evolved since the time the study was conducted, therefore, the perspectives provided in this study are reflective of the context in which data was collected.

“In general, transmission-preventative and social behaviours have evolved since the time the study was conducted, therefore, the perspectives provided in this study are reflective of the context in which data was collected.”