Cited by 1,264COVID-19 and Mental HealthAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesCommunication and COVID-19 Impact

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Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020

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Mertens, Gaëtan, Gerritsen, Lotte, Duijndam, Stefanie, Salemink, Elske, Engelhard, Iris M.·2020·Journal of Anxiety Disorders

DOI 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102258PMC PMC7286280

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Abstract

Fear is an adaptive response in the presence of danger. However, when threat is uncertain and continuous, as in the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, fear can become chronic and burdensome. To identify predictors of fear of the coronavirus, we conducted an online survey (N = 439) three days after the World Health Organization declared the coronavirus outbreak a pandemic (i.e., between March 14 and 17, 2020). Fear of the coronavirus was assessed with the newly developed Fear of the Coronavirus Questionnaire (FCQ) consisting of eight questions pertaining to different dimensions of fear (e.g., subjective worry, safety behaviors, preferential attention), and an open-ended question. The predictors included psychological vulnerability factors (i.e., intolerance of uncertainty, worry, and health anxiety), media exposure, and personal relevance (i.e., personal health, risk for loved ones, and risk control). We found four predictors for the FCQ in a simultaneous regression analysis: health anxiety, regular media use, social media use, and risks for loved ones (R2 = .37). Furthermore, 16 different topics of concern were identified based participants’ open-ended responses, including the health of loved ones, health care systems overload, and economic consequences. We discuss the relevance of our findings for managing people’s fear of the coronavirus.

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“This pandemic has generated a high level of distress in the general population, manifesting a large increase in symptoms of depression and anxiety [4] but especially in vulnerable populations there has been an increased risk of mental disorders [5], suicide attempts [6] and has increased stigma and discrimination when…”
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Lost in between crises: How do COVID-19 threats influence the motivation to act against climate change and the refugee crisis?
Ekinci, S., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2022) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101918 · Cited by 17
“about the future, loneliness, fear for their health, and concern over the health of loved ones (e.g., Li & Wang, 2020; Mertens et al., 2020).”
Cashless payment: behavior changes and gender dynamics during the COVID-19 pandemic
Graziano, E. A., Musella, F., & Petroccione, G. (2024) · EuroMed Journal of Business · doi:10.1108/emjb-11-2023-0299 · Cited by 21
Replication analysis of the COVID-19 Worry Scale
Faisal, R. A., Jobe, M. C., Ahmed, O., & Sharker, T. (2020) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2020.1815104 · Cited by 16
“Stress, worry, fear, anxiety, and depression are just some of the reported mental health illness manifesting from the COVID-19 pandemic (Dubey et al., 2020; Mertens et al., 2020).”
Background
A Study on the Correlation Between Media Usage Frequency and Audiences’ Risk Perception, Emotion and Behavior
Li, P., & Fangqi, Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.822300 · Cited by 17
Mental Health, Social Connectedness, and Fear During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Perspective from Older Women with HIV
Stanton, A. M., Goodman, G. R., Blyler, A. P., Kirakosian, N., Labbe, A. K., Robbins, G., Park, E., & Psaros, C. (2022) · Aids and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-022-03950-9 · Cited by 16
Self-Perceived Mental Health Status, Digital Activity, and Physical Distancing in the Context of Lockdown Versus Not-in-Lockdown Measures in Italy and Croatia: Cross-Sectional Study in the Early Ascending Phase of the COVID-19 Pandemic in March 2020
Kopilaš, V., Hasratian, A. M., Martinelli, L., Ivkić, G., Brajković, L., & Gajović, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621633 · Cited by 15
Political views and science literacy as indicators of vaccine confidence and COVID-19 concern
Siani, A., Carter, I., & Moulton, F. (2021) · Journal of preventive medicine and hygiene · doi:10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2022.63.2.2320 · Cited by 17
Managing Fear During Pandemics: Risks and Opportunities
Mertens, G., Engelhard, I. M., Novacek, D. M., & McNally, R. J. (2023) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231178720 · Cited by 15
“Indeed, fear in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic is a multifaceted construct, with concerns relating to health, supply shortages, xenophobia, and socioeconomic worries (Mertens et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020a).”
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Research on the Healing Potential of Urban Parks from the Perspective of Audio-Visual Integration: A Case Study of Five Urban Parks in Chengdu
Yang, Z., Zhao, X., Zhu, L., Xia, Y., Ma, Y., Wu, J., Xiong, X., Yang, N., & Miao, L. (2023) · Land · doi:10.3390/land12071317 · Cited by 15
Fear of COVID-19 predicts increases in anxiety, depressive symptoms, health anxiety, psychosocial distress, and loneliness: Findings from a prospective two-year follow-up study
Autenrieth, L. K., Asselmann, E., Melzig, C. A., & Benke, C. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.07.018 · Cited by 15
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic in Taiwan: An Online Survey on Worry and Anxiety and Associated Factors
Lu, W.-H., Ko, N., Chang, Y., Yen, C., & Wang, P. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17217974 · Cited by 16
How do Google searches for symptoms, news and unemployment interact during COVID-19? A Lotka–Volterra analysis of google trends data
Sotis, C. (2021) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-020-01089-0 · Cited by 15
Exploring factors in fear of COVID-19 and its GIS-based nationwide distribution: the case of Bangladesh
Mamun, M. A. (2021) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.984 · Cited by 16
Fuzzy Clustering Methods to Identify the Epidemiological Situation and Its Changes in European Countries during COVID-19
Łuczak, A., & Kalinowski, S. (2021) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e24010014 · Cited by 15
Are Potential Tourists Willing to Pay More for Improved Accessibility? Preliminary Evidence from the Gargano National Park
Sica, E., Sisto, R., & di Santo, N. (2022) · Land · doi:10.3390/land11010075 · Cited by 15
Fear among Syrians: A Proposed Cutoff Score for the Arabic Fear of COVID-19 Scale
Mohsen, F., Bakkar, B., alsrouji, S. K., Abbas, E., Najjar, A., Marrawi, M., & Latifeh, Y. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264257 · Cited by 15
COVID ‐19, economic problems, and family relationships in eight Middle East and North African countries
Tantawi, M. E., Foláyan, M. O., Aly, N. M., Brown, B. J., Ezechi, O., Uzochukwu, B. S. C., Khader, Y. S., Al-Batayneh, O. B., Al‐Khanati, N. M., Attia, D., et al. (2022) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12691 · Cited by 15
Investigating the Role of Perceived Information Overload on COVID-19 Fear: A Moderation Role of Fake News Related to COVID-19
Zhang, C., Cao, T., & Ali, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.930088 · Cited by 19
Od paniki do negacji: zmiana postaw wobec COVID-19
Kalinowski, S. (2020) · Wieś i Rolnictwo · doi:10.53098/wir032020/03 · Cited by 15
Investigating of fear of COVID-19 after pregnancy and association with breastfeeding
Uzun, A., Öztürk, G. Z., Bozkurt, Z., & Çavuşoğlu, M. (2021) · Journal of Ideas in Health · doi:10.47108/jidhealth.vol4.iss1.98 · Cited by 14
“The negativity and uncertainty brought by the COVID-19 pandemic increased people's fear and anxiety [17].”
Background
Impact of Anxiety on Readiness for COVID-19 Vaccination among Polish Nursing Undergraduate Students: Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study
Gotlib, J., Jaworski, M., Wawrzuta, D., Sobierajski, T., & Pańczyk, M. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9121385 · Cited by 14
The Intolerance of Uncertainty and “Untact” Buying Behavior: The Mediating Role of the Perceived Risk of COVID-19 Variants and Protection Motivation
Zhao, S., Ye, B., Wang, W., & Zeng, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.807331 · Cited by 19
Negatywne reakcje emocjonalne na stres pandemii wirusa SARS-CoV-2: rola stresorów, cech osobowości i poznawczych strategii regulacji emocji zorientowanych na unikanie
Zawadzki, B., Popiel, A., Bielecki, M., Mroziński, B., & Pragłowska, E. (2022) · Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri eBooks · doi:10.47943/lib.9788363487607.rozdzial03 · Cited by 13
Nowe wyzwania dla neuropsychologii klinicznej: studia przypadku osób zakażonych wirusem SARS-CoV-2
Malinowska, E., Żarnecka, D., Wyszomirska, J., Hyniewska, S., Filon, M., & Łojek, E. (2022) · Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri eBooks · doi:10.47943/lib.9788363487607.rozdzial07 · Cited by 13
Rodziny z dziećmi i nastolatkami w czasach pandemii COVID- 19. Złożony obraz relacji
Gambin, M., Kmita, G., Woźniak‐Prus, M., Boruszak‐Kiziukiewicz, J., & Kubicka, K. (2022) · Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri eBooks · doi:10.47943/lib.9788363487607.rozdzial10 · Cited by 13
Sprawczość i wspólnotowość a lęk i samopoczucie w trakcie pandemii COVID-19
Wojtkowiak, N., & Hansen, K. (2022) · Wydawnictwo Liberi Libri eBooks · doi:10.47943/lib.9788363487607.rozdzial05 · Cited by 13
Anxiety in the adult population from the onset to termination of social distancing protocols during the COVID-19: a 20-month longitudinal study
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Anxiety and Stress Related to COVID-19 Among the Community Dwelling Older Adults Residing in the Largest Refugee Camp of the World
Anwar, A., Yadav, U. N., Huda, M. N., Das, S., Rosenbaum, S., Ali, A. R. M. M., Mondal, P. K., Rizwan, A. A. M., Hossain, S. F. A., Das Shuvo, S., et al. (2023) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-023-01101-5 · Cited by 13
Exploring Loneliness, Fear and Depression among Older Adults during the COVID-19 Era: A Cross-Sectional Study in Greek Provincial Towns
Moustakopoulou, L., Αδαμακίδου, Θ., Plakas, S., Δρακοπούλου, Μ., Apostolara, P., Mantoudi, A., Mastrogiannis, D., Zartaloudi, A., Parissopoulos, S., Koreli, A., et al. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11091234 · Cited by 16
“The predisposing factors for fear are high rates of infection, anxiety, uncertainty, risk of infection and death of loved ones and media exposure [8,9].”
Background
Differences in perceived threat and trauma in children during the COVID-19 pandemic
Kohlboeck, G., Wenter, A., Sevecke, K., & Exenberger, S. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-023-00628-5 · Cited by 14
Relationship between COVID‐19‐related stress and social inhibition among university students in China: The mediating role of psychological richness
Gu, Y., Tao, L., & Zheng, W. X. (2023) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12872 · Cited by 14
Efficacy and safety of glucocorticoids use in patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and network meta‑analysis
He, Q., Wang, C., Wang, Y., Chen, G., Zhou, Y., Wu, Y., & Zhong, M. (2023) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-023-08874-w · Cited by 14
“…coronavirus pneumonia are characterized by a severe cytokine storm, in which the overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines leads to increased vascular permeability and multiple organ failure [4], poses severe challenges to not only to human health, but also global health care system [5, 6].”
Background
COVID-19 and Mental Health
Arı, M., & Duman, T. (2020) · Düzce Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.18678/dtfd.790365 · Cited by 15
Coronavirus: A “Mild” Virus Turned Deadly Infection
Naqvi, R. A., Mushtaq, M. F., Mian, N. A., Khan, M. A., Rahman, A., Yousaf, M. A., Umair, M., & Majeed, R. (2021) · Computers, materials & continua/Computers, materials & continua (Print) · doi:10.32604/cmc.2021.012167 · Cited by 14
Problem gambling during Covid-19
Frisone, F., Alibrandi, A., & Settineri, S. (2020) · Mediterranean Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.6092/2282-1619/mjcp-2457 · Cited by 30
Self-Perceived Life Satisfaction during the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Sweden: A Cross-Sectional Study
Brogårdh, C. B., Hammarlund, C. S., Eek, F., Stigmar, K., Lindgren, I., Trulsson, A., & Hansson, E. E. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18126234 · Cited by 16
“However, one drawback is that younger people [50] and women tend to be overrepresented in studies of Facebook recruitment [14,23,49], which is partly in line with the present study.”
BackgroundResult
‘Stay Safe-Feel Positive’ on the frontline: An online positive psychology intervention for police officers during the COVID-19 pandemic
Brouzos, A., Vassilopoulos, S. P., Romosiou, V., Stavrou, V., Tassi, C., Baourda, V. C., & Brouzou, K. O. (2021) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2021.1975161 · Cited by 16
“Fear can keep people alert to the risk that the virus poses and assist adaptation to the new conditions, motivating them to adhere to safety measures and adopt preventive behaviors (Mertens et al., 2020; Yildirim et al., 2021).”
BackgroundInfluential
Machine Learning Based Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Predictive Model During COVID-19 Crisis
Al‐Wesabi, F. N., Alsolai, H., Hilal, A. M., Hamza, M. A., Duhayyim, M. A., & Negm, N. (2021) · Computers, materials & continua/Computers, materials & continua (Print) · doi:10.32604/cmc.2022.021195 · Cited by 14

Authors: Mertens, G., Gerritsen, L., Duijndam, S., Salemink, E., & Engelhard, I. M.
Affiliations: Utrecht University (NL)
Tilburg University (NL)
Corresponding author: Mertens, Gaëtan
ORCID: Mertens, Gaëtan
Gerritsen, Lotte
Duijndam, Stefanie
Salemink, Elske
Engelhard, Iris M.
Venue: Journal of Anxiety Disorders
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2020-08
Volume: 74
Pages: 102258
ISSN: 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102258
PMC: PMC7286280
OpenAlex: W3020284447
Cited by: 1,264
References: 51
Citations by year: 2026: 28 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 120 · 2023: 209 · 2022: 350 · 2021: 410 · 2020: 100
FWCI: 106.45
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Research portal (Tilburg University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
Keywords: fear of COVID-19, COVID-19 pandemic, predictors of fear, health anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, worry, media exposure, social media use, personal relevance, safety behavior, economic impact
MeSH terms: COVID-19, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Fear, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress, Psychological, Coronavirus Infections, Internet, Uncertainty, Young Adult, Pandemics, Social Media

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Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020

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