Cited by 1,264COVID-19 and Mental HealthAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesCommunication and COVID-19 Impact

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Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020

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Mertens, Gaëtan, Gerritsen, Lotte, Duijndam, Stefanie, Salemink, Elske, Engelhard, Iris M.·2020·Journal of Anxiety Disorders

DOI 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102258PMC PMC7286280

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Abstract

Fear is an adaptive response in the presence of danger. However, when threat is uncertain and continuous, as in the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, fear can become chronic and burdensome. To identify predictors of fear of the coronavirus, we conducted an online survey (N = 439) three days after the World Health Organization declared the coronavirus outbreak a pandemic (i.e., between March 14 and 17, 2020). Fear of the coronavirus was assessed with the newly developed Fear of the Coronavirus Questionnaire (FCQ) consisting of eight questions pertaining to different dimensions of fear (e.g., subjective worry, safety behaviors, preferential attention), and an open-ended question. The predictors included psychological vulnerability factors (i.e., intolerance of uncertainty, worry, and health anxiety), media exposure, and personal relevance (i.e., personal health, risk for loved ones, and risk control). We found four predictors for the FCQ in a simultaneous regression analysis: health anxiety, regular media use, social media use, and risks for loved ones (R2 = .37). Furthermore, 16 different topics of concern were identified based participants’ open-ended responses, including the health of loved ones, health care systems overload, and economic consequences. We discuss the relevance of our findings for managing people’s fear of the coronavirus.

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“In agreement with our study, a stronger link between COVID-19 fear and anxiety [39,54] and a weaker link between depression and fear of COVID-19 [3,12] has been found from the previous empirical studies.”
Initial risk factors, self-compassion trajectories, and well-being outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic: A person-centered approach
Kil, H., Lacourse, É., Mageau, G. A., Pelletier-Dumas, M., Dorfman, A., Stolle, D., Lina, J., & de la Sablonnière, R. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1016397 · Cited by 12
“As COVID-19 cases have risen, psychological distress related to COVID-19 has also increased due to fear of infection, social isolation, and overburdening of health care institutions (Mann et al., 2020; Mertens et al., 2020).”
Background
Predicting the replicability of social and behavioural science claims in COVID-19 preprints
Marcoci, A., Wilkinson, D. P., Vercammen, A., Wintle, B. C., Abatayo, A. L., Baskin, E., Berkman, H., Buchanan, E. M., Capitán, S., Capitán, T., et al. (2024) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-024-01961-1 · Cited by 14
Fear of the Unknown: Does Fear of Terrorism Differ From Fear of Contracting COVID-19?
Bitton, M. S., & Laufer, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.660777 · Cited by 9
Psychological Resilience and Life Satisfaction of Healthcare Professionals in Turkey: The Mediating Role of Fear of COVID
Karagöz, Y., DURAK, İ., & Mutlu, H. T. (2021) · Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi · doi:10.17066/tpdrd.1001724 · Cited by 15
Health anxiety is associated with fearful imagery of contracting COVID-19: An experimental study
Benke, C., Schönborn, T., Habermann, N., & Pané‐Farré, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.11.014 · Cited by 10
What Drives Belief in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories? Examining the Role of Uncertainty, Negative Emotions, and Perceived Relevance and Threat
Lee, T., & Koo, G. H. (2022) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2022.2134703 · Cited by 11
“Personal relevance to COVID-19 can also facilitate greater aversive feelings (e.g., fear) toward the situation (Mertens et al., 2020), which increases their susceptibility to conspiracy theories (Van Prooijen & Douglas, 2017).”
Background
A Cross-Cultural Study of Distress during COVID-19 Pandemic: Some Protective and Risk Factors
Kosić, A., Ignjatović, T. D., & Petrović, N. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147261 · Cited by 11
Necessity or opportunity: A case of business venturing decision during COVID‐19 pandemic
Vazirani, A., & Bhattacharjee, T. (2021) · Managerial and Decision Economics · doi:10.1002/mde.3417 · Cited by 10
Modeling of Brain Cortical Activity during Relaxation and Mental Workload Tasks Based on EEG Signal Collection
Zemla, K., Wójcik, G. M., Postepski, F., Wróbel, K., Kawiak, A., & Sędek, G. (2023) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app13074472 · Cited by 13
Cyberchondria and Chinese Adolescent Mental Health in the Age of COVID-19 Pandemic
Liu, Y., Peng, W., Cao, M., Zhang, S., Peng, J., & Zhou, Z. (2023) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2022.0319 · Cited by 12
“Given that gender, age, academic stress, family socioeconomic status, problematic smartphone use, and anxiety about COVID-19 (details about assessments see Supplementary Data) may have an effect on well-being and depressive symptoms, 38,39 we held these variables constant in the analyses.”
Influence of mental health on information seeking, risk perception and mask wearing self-efficacy during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal panel study across 6 U.S. States
Welton‐Mitchell, C., Dally, M. J., Dickinson, K. L., Neuberger, L., Roberts, J. D., & Blanch‐Hartigan, D. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01241-z · Cited by 10
Explaining association between interpersonal communication competence and depression through need satisfaction, anxiety, and stress
Çıkrıkçı, N. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06250-8 · Cited by 20
“Inadequacy in managing Anx and Str has the potential to negatively affect individual life (Mertens et al., 2020).”
Investigating fear, depressive symptoms and coping mechanisms among Egyptian nursing students amidst the covid-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study
El‐Sayed, M. M., Ghazi, G. A., Kamal, M. A., & Khedr, M. A. (2024) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-024-02104-7 · Cited by 11
“The FCQ was developed by Mertens, Gerritsen, et al. [23] during the COVID-19 pandemic [23].”
Method
Einführung zur Qualität von Medizinjournalismus und erste Einschätzungen zur COVID-19-Berichterstattung
Daube, D., & Ruhrmann, G. (2020) · Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz · doi:10.1007/s00103-020-03249-x · Cited by 10
Online Classes during COVID-19 Pandemic: Anxiety, Stress & Depression among University Students
Mridul1, B. B. (2021) · Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology · doi:10.37506/ijfmt.v15i1.13394 · Cited by 11
The Moderating Role of Caregiving on Fear of COVID-19 and Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms
Carballo, J. L., Coloma‐Carmona, A., Arteseros-Bañón, S., & Pérez‐Jover, V. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18116125 · Cited by 11
Explaining nurses' experience of stresses and coping mechanisms in coronavirus pandemic
Ghorbani, A., Shali, M., Matourypour, P., Morkani, E. S., Salehpoor-Emran, M., & Nasrabadi, A. N. (2021) · Nursing Forum · doi:10.1111/nuf.12644 · Cited by 10
Extending the Common Sense Model to Explore the Impact of the Fear of COVID-19 on Quality of Life in an International Inflammatory Bowel Disease Cohort
Hayes, B., Apputhurai, P., Mikocka‐Walus, A. A., Acosta, M. B., Bernstein, C. N., Burgell, R., Burisch, J. M., Evertsz, F. B., Ferreira, N. B., Graff, L. A., et al. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings · doi:10.1007/s10880-021-09823-y · Cited by 12
Development of Social Distancing Phobia Scale and Its Association with Anxiety and Perceived Stress
Günlü, A. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00664-2 · Cited by 10
“, 2010 During the COVID-19 pandemic era, it was found that the epidemic had serious negative effects (stress, anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms, and obsessive behaviors) on the mental health of the individual (Cai et al., 2020; Duan & Zhu, 2020; Fardin, 2020; Huang & Zhao, 2020; Mertens et al., 2020; Nasir et al.,…”
Background
Relationship between Stress and Alexithymia, Emotional Processing and Negative/Positive Affect in Medical Staff Working amid the COVID-19 Pandemic
Warchoł-Biedermann, K., Bugajski, P., Budzicz, Ł., Ziarko, M., Jasielska, A., Samborski, W., Daroszewski, P., Greberski, K., Bączyk, G., Karoń, J., et al. (2021) · Journal of Investigative Medicine · doi:10.1136/jim-2021-001942 · Cited by 13
The Relationship between Prevention and Panic from COVID-19, Ethical Principles, Life Expectancy, Anxiety, Depression and Stress
Salehi, M., Zimon, G., Ghaderi, A. R., & Hasan, Z. A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19105841 · Cited by 11
The psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal: The role of personality traits and emotion regulation strategies
Kluwe‐Schiavon, B., Zorzi, L. D., Meireles, J., Leite, J., Sequeira, H., & Carvalho, S. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269496 · Cited by 10
Sleep Quality Among Pregnant Women Amidst COVID-19: Association with Mental Wellbeing and Self-efficacy
Dule, A., Abdu, Z., Hajure, M., & Mohammedhussein, M. (2021) · American Journal of Health Research · doi:10.11648/j.ajhr.20210906.14 · Cited by 10
Understanding spiritual health, depression, anxiety, and stress among tertiary students under the impact of COVID-19 in Hong Kong
Leung, C. H. (2022) · Asia Pacific Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/02188791.2022.2114425 · Cited by 11
“…indicate that exposure to COVID-19-related news and stressful content through media and/or social networking sites is associated with increased COVID-19-related worries and distress (Chao, Xue, Liu, Yang, &Hall, 2020; Mertens, Gerritsen, Duijndam, Salemink, &Engelhard, 2020; Roy et al., 2020).”
Background
Change in anti‐COVID‐19 behaviour and anti‐immigrant prejudice during the COVID‐19 pandemic: Longitudinal evidence from five European countries
Zingora, T., Birtel, M. D., Graf, S., Hřebı́čková, M., Lacko, D., Rupar, M., Točík, J., & Voca, S. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2928 · Cited by 10
Social and cognitive vulnerability to COVID-19-related stress in pregnancy: A case-matched-control study of antenatal mental health
Songco, A., Minihan, S., Fox, E., Ladouceur, C. D., Mewton, L. R., Moulds, M. L., Pfeifer, J. H., van Harmelen, A., & Schweizer, S. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.01.053 · Cited by 10
“Worry has also been associated with greater distress in pregnant women during COVID-19 (Mertens et al., 2020).”
One virus, many lives: a qualitative study of lived experiences and quality of life of adults from diverse backgrounds living in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic
Gogoi, M., Chaloner, J., Qureshi, I., Wobi, F., Al‐Oraibi, A., Wilson, H., Suleman, M., Nellums, L. B., & Pareek, M. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-067569 · Cited by 10
YES, WE COPE: Dyadic Coping as a Mediator Between Perceived Relationship Quality and Emotional Representation of COVID-19
Relvas, A. P., Lacomba‐Trejo, L., Portugal, A. P. M., Chiarolanza, C., Major, S. D. O., Rosa, C., Sotero, L. M. L., & Randall, A. K. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10379-4 · Cited by 10
Black in the pandemic: Comparing experiences of mistrust, anxiety, and the COVID-19 vaccine among Black adults in the U.S.
Goodwill, J. R., & Fike, K. J. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116302 · Cited by 10
Does thinking about coronavirus impact insight and analytical reasoning?
Karwowski, M., Groyecka-Bernard, A., Kowal, M., & Sorokowski, P. (2020) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100715 · Cited by 10
Covid-19 Demographics from a Tertiary Care Center: Does It Depreciate Quality-of-Life?
Revathishree, K., Sudarsan, S. S., Indu, R., & Srinivasan, K. (2020) · Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery · doi:10.1007/s12070-020-02144-w · Cited by 10
“Studies [19, 33, 34] had done correlation studies but with different perspectives like psychometrics, intolerance of uncertainty and predictors of Covid-19 fear respectively.”
Method
An Online Survey: Assessing Anxiety Level among General Population during the Coronavirus Disease-19 Pandemic in Indonesia
Hikmah, K., Prisandy, L., Melinda, G., & Ayatullah, M. I. (2020) · Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.3889/oamjms.2020.5386 · Cited by 11
“481), consistent with a previous study [15].”
BackgroundMethod
Familial Experiences of Caring for Schizophrenia Patients during the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study
Indriati, I., Adi, W. S., Anggarawati, T., Astuti, Y., & Alfriani, D. (2021) · Jurnal NERS · doi:10.20473/jn.v16i1.24130 · Cited by 10
Comparison of anxiety levels of hospitalized COVID‐19 patients, individuals under quarantine, and individuals in society
Kesgin, M. T., Tok, H. H., Uzun, L. N., & Pehlivan, Ş. (2021) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12857 · Cited by 12
“During these previous epidemics, societies faced psychological vulnerability related to uncertainty, concerns and anxiety about health.(30) Studies have reported that hospitalized COVID‐19 patients experienced anxiety (37.”
Background
Salgın Hastalıklar Döneminde Sosyal Medyanın Korku Algısında Meydana Getirdiği Değişimin İncelenmesi: Covid-19/ Examination of The Change Caused by Social Media in The Perception of Fear During the Period of Epidemics: Covid-19
Gülnar, B., & Acar, N. (2021) · Nitel Sosyal Bilimler · doi:10.47105/nsb.904351 · Cited by 11
Examining the Relationships Between Fear of Coronavirus, State Anxiety, and Relationship Happiness Among Married Turkish Individuals During COVID-19
Dilmaç, B., Karababa, A., Seki, T., Şimşir, Z., & Kurnaz, M. F. (2021) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x211055513 · Cited by 10
Do patients with pathological health anxiety fear COVID-19? A time-course analysis of 12 single cases during the “first wave” of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany
Sauer, K. S., Schmidt, A., Jungmann, S. M., Bailer, J., & Witthöft, M. (2021) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110687 · Cited by 13
“The severity of COVID-19 related mental distress, however, is also significantly affected by the risk assessment regarding other, e.g., loved people [13,21,71,72].”
Insomnia and nightmare profiles during the COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal: characterization and associated factors
Gonçalves, M., Henriques, A., Costa, A. R., Correia, D. M., Severo, M., Lucas, R., Barros, H., Santos, A. C., Ribeiro, A. I., Rocha, A., et al. (2022) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2021.12.018 · Cited by 14
“Fear was also related to regular and social media use [41].”
Pandemic paranoia, general paranoia, and their relationships with worry and beliefs about self/others – A multi-site latent class analysis
So, S. H., Zhu, C., Lincoln, T. M., Gaudiano, B. A., Kingston, J. L., Ellett, L., & Morris, E. M. J. (2022) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2022.01.045 · Cited by 11
Innovation on Education and Social Sciences
Maureen, I. Y., Imah, E. M., Savira, S. I., Anam, S., Mael, M. R., & Hartanti, L. P. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781003265061 · Cited by 15

Authors: Mertens, G., Gerritsen, L., Duijndam, S., Salemink, E., & Engelhard, I. M.
Affiliations: Utrecht University (NL)
Tilburg University (NL)
Corresponding author: Mertens, Gaëtan
ORCID: Mertens, Gaëtan
Gerritsen, Lotte
Duijndam, Stefanie
Salemink, Elske
Engelhard, Iris M.
Venue: Journal of Anxiety Disorders
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2020-08
Volume: 74
Pages: 102258
ISSN: 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102258
PMC: PMC7286280
OpenAlex: W3020284447
Cited by: 1,264
References: 51
Citations by year: 2026: 28 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 120 · 2023: 209 · 2022: 350 · 2021: 410 · 2020: 100
FWCI: 106.45
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Research portal (Tilburg University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
Keywords: fear of COVID-19, COVID-19 pandemic, predictors of fear, health anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, worry, media exposure, social media use, personal relevance, safety behavior, economic impact
MeSH terms: COVID-19, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Fear, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress, Psychological, Coronavirus Infections, Internet, Uncertainty, Young Adult, Pandemics, Social Media

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Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020

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