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Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020
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Abstract
Fear is an adaptive response in the presence of danger. However, when threat is uncertain and continuous, as in the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, fear can become chronic and burdensome. To identify predictors of fear of the coronavirus, we conducted an online survey (N = 439) three days after the World Health Organization declared the coronavirus outbreak a pandemic (i.e., between March 14 and 17, 2020). Fear of the coronavirus was assessed with the newly developed Fear of the Coronavirus Questionnaire (FCQ) consisting of eight questions pertaining to different dimensions of fear (e.g., subjective worry, safety behaviors, preferential attention), and an open-ended question. The predictors included psychological vulnerability factors (i.e., intolerance of uncertainty, worry, and health anxiety), media exposure, and personal relevance (i.e., personal health, risk for loved ones, and risk control). We found four predictors for the FCQ in a simultaneous regression analysis: health anxiety, regular media use, social media use, and risks for loved ones (R2 = .37). Furthermore, 16 different topics of concern were identified based participants’ open-ended responses, including the health of loved ones, health care systems overload, and economic consequences. We discuss the relevance of our findings for managing people’s fear of the coronavirus.
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“In addition, individual differences exist in the level of COVID-19 related concerns and therefore in the vulnerability to the psychosocial effects of the pandemic (Mertens, Gerritsen, et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2021; Vos et al., 2021).”
From The association between facets of mindfulness and COVID-19 related distress: A cross-sectional study (2023) · cites this paper as Mertens, Gerritsen, et al., 2020
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In the citing paper
“Children with chronic illnesses appear especially vulnerable to IU’s adverse effects (Mertens et al., 2020).”
From Intolerance of Uncertainty and Health-Related Anxiety in Youth amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: Understanding and Weathering the Continuing Storm (2022) · cites this paper as Mertens et al., 2020
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“A potential risk factor for the mental health consequences of COVID-19 could be enhanced fear related to the virus (Mertens, Gerritsen, et al., 2020; Taylor et al., 2020b).”
From The association between facets of mindfulness and COVID-19 related distress: A cross-sectional study (2023) · cites this paper as Mertens, Gerritsen, et al., 2020
In the citing paper
“Most of these studies also detected a link between fear of COVID-19 and anxiety (Mertens et al., 2020) and, to a lesser extent, depression, using both the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS; Ahorsu et al., 2020; Alyami et al., 2020) and the Depression and Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21).”
From Fear of COVID-19, Stress, and Anxiety in University Undergraduate Students: A Predictive Model for Depression (2020) · cites this paper as Mertens et al., 2020
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“Table (1) Personal data of intervention and control groups of nursing students”
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Negotiating COVID-19 in Russia on the Eve of the Introduction of Social Restrictions
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“Mertens et al. (2020) defines fear as an adaptive emotion that mobilizes energy in individuals to deal with potential threats.”
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Elective surgery during COVID-19 pandemic – patient’s perspective
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The Mediating Role of Self-Alienation between Fear of Covid-19 and Smartphone Addiction
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“Public health stay-at-home orders, physical distancing measures, growing amounts of cases, hospitalizations, ventilator-dependence, and deaths, as well as the subsequent reconfiguration of healthcare delivery have all had unintended consequences, including amplified patient fear and anxiety.(2) This situation has led…”
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“8,10 In addition to that, the presence of anxiety can exacerbate the impact of this fear on depression.”
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Gilbert, S. L., Dimoff, J. K., Mullen, J. E., Kelloway, E. K., Thibault, T., Jones‐Chick, R., Myers, V., Shaw, J., & Myrden, S. E. (2024) · Occupational Health Science · doi:10.1007/s41542-024-00202-1 · Cited by 1
“In this context, safety communication heightens employee exposure to threat information, which in turn, promotes fear (Mertens et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2022).”
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“For higher education institutions around the world, the spread of the coronavirus meant the physical closure of universities and the transition to fully or partially online instruction (Gelles et al ., 2020; Mertens et al ., 2020; Aucejo et al ., 2020).”
Cerrahi Hastalarının COVID-19 Korku Düzeyleri ile Ameliyata Özgü Kaygıları Arasındaki İlişki
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InfluentialWas the COVID-19 Pandemic a Triggering Factor for PTSD in Adults? Results From A Systematic Review
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“Several emotional challenges, such as fear of infection and contagion [11,12], uncertainty related to the un-availability of effective therapeutic strategies, as well as unexpected losses [13], were commonly experienced by the general population, especially during the first months of the COVID-19…”
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“This population showed a significant fear of health consequences in the FCQ 28,29 in contrast to the office workers (mean value 23.4 ± 5.7 in office workers vs. 28.7 ± 6.6 in seafarers, p 0.001, crude OR 3.8, CI 1.4–10.4).”
InfluentialOn the dynamics of a COVID-19 model with vaccination and social processes
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The evolution of demand for last-mile fulfillment services in the US: a regionalized perspective
Marzolf, M. J., Miller, J. W., & Peinkofer, S. T. (2026) · International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management · doi:10.1108/ijpdlm-06-2025-0299 · Cited by 1
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“ةسارد تنيب دقو نورخآو وو (Wu et al., 2005) معدلا ينددو عفدرملا يدايحلا ديدهتلا نأ ةفلتخم تاضارمأ ابسيو ،راض ريثأد هل يفطاعلا يعامتجلاا قلقلاو باهرلا لثم نييوتسملا تلع تيرجأ ةسارد تراشأ دقو ،يعمتجملاو ودرفلا تلع439 تادرف ةيملاعلا ةحصلا ةمظنم نلاعإ دعب عافدرا كانه نأ ،يملاع ءابو انوروك سوريف ةساردلا…”
A Child Psychiatry Clinical Sample of Adolescents’ Covid-19 Perception and Compliance with Measures
Başay, Ö., Başay, B. K., & Öztürk, F. (2021) · Harran Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.35440/hutfd.888635 · Cited by 1
Infodemia en Perú post primera ola del COVID-19: Características y factores asociados
Vilela-Estrada, M. A., Carbajal-Paniora, I., Alcantara-Cuellar, C. B., Ore-Cayllahua, R. D., Chura-Alanoca, R., Chumpitaz-Carrillo, E., Serna-Alarcón, V., Rivera, L. D. J. I., & Mejia, C. R. (2021) · Boletín de Malariología y Salud Ambiental · doi:10.52808/bmsa.7e5.61e2.018 · Cited by 1
“Diversos estudios internacionales y nacionales han demostrado la existencia de una asociación entre los medios de comunicación, los mayores niveles de ansiedad, miedo y preocupación en la población (Ahmad & Murad, 2020; Mertens et al., 2020; Greenhawt et al., 2021).”
BackgroundRoy, D., Roy, T. J., Mahmud, I., & Alvi, N. (2021) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-2597-8_4 · Cited by 1
Miedo y ansiedad por coronavirus en personal de central de esterilización de un hospital de Lima
Caballero, Y. C. H. (2021) · Revista Cuidado y Salud Pública · doi:10.53684/csp.v1i1.6 · Cited by 1
Benzouak, T., Gunpat, S., Briner, E., Thake, J. A., Kisely, S. R., & Rao, S. (2021) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.19999 · Cited by 1
Quarantine Victors: Lived Experiences of Hospitalized COVID-19 Survivors
Rillo, J. A., Uy, T. M. E., Macapagal, C. D., Mariano, M. C. R., Melosantos, M. F., Villena, C. M. D., Flores, E. A., & Catabona, Z. B. (2022) · Proceedings Series on Health & Medical Sciences · doi:10.30595/pshms.v2i.219 · Cited by 1
“(2020) found that the predictors associated with the anxiety regarding the Coronavirus include health anxiety, and risks for loved ones [30].”
BackgroundŞimşek, T., & Şimşek, A. K. (2022) · Clinical and Experimental Health Sciences · doi:10.33808/clinexphealthsci.1007635 · Cited by 1
Costa, T. G., Ramos-Urrea, C., Santos, D. D. A. T., Ostolin, T. L. V. D. P., & de Lira, C. A. B. (2022) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v11i6.28689 · Cited by 1
BİLGİ KAYNAKLARININ COVID-19 KORKUSUNA ETKİSİ
KARAHAN, G., Duyan, V., & Güre, M. D. P. (2022) · Turkish Journal of Applied Social Work · doi:10.54467/trjasw.1099685 · Cited by 1
patopsychológie, V. Ú. D. P. A., Rajčániová, E., Katedra psychológie, F. F., Pekárová, V., & Tomšík, R. (2022) · Ceskoslovenska psychologie · doi:10.51561/cspsych.66.3.298 · Cited by 1
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Stress among international medical students during COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study
Milanović, M., Mijatović, E., Đokić, M., Stanisavljević, T., Đokić, A., Milić, N., Cirkovic, A. M., & Rajović, N. (2022) · Medicinski podmladak · doi:10.5937/mp73-33990 · Cited by 1
Abraham Wai-yat, N. G., Yuen, M., & TORRE, J. D. L. (2022) · Pastoral Care in Education · doi:10.1080/02643944.2022.2099004 · Cited by 2
Dróżdż, A. (2022) · De Securitate et Defensione O Bezpieczeństwie i Obronności · doi:10.34739/dsd.2022.01.03 · Cited by 1
The Effect of Coronavirus Fear on Cyberchondria Level in Students Studying in the Field of Health
Belli, M. (2022) · Turkish Journal of Health Science and Life · doi:10.56150/tjhsl.1141931 · Cited by 1
Schmitz, A., Garten, C., Kühne, S., & Brandt, M. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14024-9 · Cited by 1
“Moreover, people face the risk of a potentially harmful and even life threatening COVID-19 infection, which can trigger feelings of fear and distress and which can even lead to individuals’ withdrawal from social activities [9, 10].”
BackgroundKowalski, J., & Gawęda, Ł. (2022) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-022-00147-9 · Cited by 1
Makhfudli, M., Machin, A., Nasir, A., Wahyudi, A. S., Harianto, S., Rindayati, R., Muhalla, H. I., Sulpat, E., Okviasanti, F., Susanto, J. P., et al. (2022) · Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare · doi:10.2147/jmdh.s386066 · Cited by 2
Adelinejad, F., Mousavi, M. T., & Tabrizi, A. M. (2022) · Health in Emergencies & Disasters Quarterly · doi:10.32598/hdq.8.1.419.2 · Cited by 2
Mukai, H., & Sugiura, Y. (2022) · The Japanese Journal of Personality · doi:10.2132/personality.31.3.1 · Cited by 1
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SANCAR, T., & YALMAN, F. (2022) · International Scientific and Vocational Studies Journal · doi:10.47897/bilmes.1174680 · Cited by 1
Experience of COVID-19 disease and fear of the SARS-CoV-2 virus among Polish students
Turska, E., Stępień-Lampa, N., & Grzywna, P. (2022) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.14356 · Cited by 3
Silva, N. S. S. E., Santos, B. N., Barbosa, R. E. C., de PINHO, L., Silva, R. R. V., & Haikal, D. S. (2022) · Revista de Nutrição · doi:10.1590/1678-9865202235e210203 · Cited by 1
Pallavicini, F., Orena, E. F., Achille, F., Stefanini, S., Caragnano, C., Vuolato, C., Pepe, A., Ranieri, P., Santo, S. G. D., Greci, L., et al. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21707-4_12 · Cited by 1
The COVID-19 representation and implications for children's well-being: A three-way perspective
Maftei, A., & Olariu, M.-M. (2022) · Psihologija · doi:10.2298/psi211130030m · Cited by 1
Health beliefs and health anxiety as predictors of COVID-19 health behavior: Data from Serbia
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حسن, د. ف. م. م. (2022) · المجلة العلمية للدراسات والبحوث المالية والإدارية · doi:10.21608/masf.2022.278068 · Cited by 1
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Metadata
- Authors
- Mertens, G., Gerritsen, L., Duijndam, S., Salemink, E., & Engelhard, I. M.
- Affiliations
- Utrecht University (NL)
- Tilburg University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Mertens, Gaëtan
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-08
- Volume
- 74
- Pages
- 102258
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7286280
- OpenAlex
- W3020284447
- Cited by
- 1,264
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 120 · 2023: 209 · 2022: 350 · 2021: 410 · 2020: 100
- FWCI
- 106.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research portal (Tilburg University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Communication › Communication and COVID-19 Impact
- Keywords
- fear of COVID-19, COVID-19 pandemic, predictors of fear, health anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, worry, media exposure, social media use, personal relevance, safety behavior, economic impact
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Anxiety, Fear, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Pneumonia, Viral, Surveys and Questionnaires, Stress, Psychological, Coronavirus Infections, Internet, Uncertainty, Young Adult, Pandemics, Social Media
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