Behavioural responses to climate change: Asymmetry of intentions and impacts

“…or selftranscendent values tend to activate personal norms to take pro-environmental action, if it is believed that environmental conditions threaten things the individual values and that the individual can act to reduce that threat (Stern et al., 1993; Nilsson et al., 2004; Snelgar, 2006).”

“, reducing car use and using public transport) might be particularly promising because it represents a positive form of communication, which can effectively reduce city smog emissions and facilitate government management (Lu & Xue, 2016; Steg, Bolderdijk, Keizer & Perlaviciute, 2014; Steg & Vlek, 2009; Whitmarsh, 2009…”

“Yet, despite high levels of public awareness, most individuals in affluent countries have not adopted a significant number of pro-environmental behaviors (e.g., Community Foundations of Canada 2010; Whitmarsh 2009).”

“14 , 19 Carbon visibility, awareness, and correct information are crucial for promoting behavioural change.”

“Increased media coverage has substantially raised public awareness and concern about environmental issues, but has typically failed to induce effective and persistent behavioral changes (Lorenzoni, Nicholson-Cole, & Whitmarsh, 2007; Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“appropriate behavioral responses for energy conservation, for example, among the public, had been effective or not (Whitmarsh 2009).”

“Information provision can be just one piece of a broader concept to promote lifestyle changes and public acceptance (Berry et al., 2008; Gadema and Oglethorpe, 2011; Prieß, 2011; Whitmarsh, 2009, 2011).”

“In contrast, high-impact PEB and, consequently, lower carbon footprints are often driven by socio-economic factors (Whitmarsh 2009, Moser and Kleinhückelkotten 2018).”

“Conserving energy is usually done for reasons other than concern for environmental impacts [40] and change in travel behavior is rarely due to climate concern [36,40,41].”

“People’s lack of perceived risks from air pollution results in their insufficient behavioral reaction to the issue (Whitmarsh 2009).”

“This adds empirical evidence to the existing literature, supporting the existence of a relationship between environmental behavior and motivation (Bolderdijk et al. 2013; Evans et al. 2013; Koo et al. 2015; Lin and Huang 2012; Pelletier et al. 1998; Wati and Koo 2012).”

“); these differences may be crucial in fighting climate change (Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“For example, people might think recycling is among the most effective climate actions (8) despite being orders of magnitude less impactful than other behaviors such as transportation decisions (2, 9).”

“In addition, the perceived pressure of social norms is particularly significant in the Chinese cultural environment, which encourages people to adopt relevant behavior to integrate into society smoothly [60,61].”

“In several studies that have been conducted, public environmental behavior is associated with conscious behavior, while private environmental behavior is associated with habitual behavior [7]–[9].”

“While this might serve to signal the green focus of the entrepreneur, research suggests that the link to pro-environmental behaviour is weak (Baumgartner & Ebner, 2010; Howard-Grenville et al., 2014; Mishra, 2017; Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Furthermore, due to their cross-situational influences, environmental motivation might result in a spill-over of environmentally-friendly behavior to different areas (Whitmarsh 2009).”

“As a consequence, PER is also vital to intention and behavior [19,40].”

“However, previous research questions whether a general tendency towards consuming more or less electricity across diverse behavioural areas even exists at the individual level (Gatersleben et al., 2002; Thøgersen & Grønhøj, 2010; Thøgersen & Ölander, 2002; Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Another important variable that influences environmental behavior is political ideology [48, 64,88,99,110,112,132], and people with left-center political visions are more concerned and have significant environmental attitudes and behavior [96,112,113,133].”

“In addition, researchers have studied intention to mitigate CC (Whitmarsh 2009), pro-environmental attitudes (Von Borgstede et al.”

“Indeed, where individuals are using less energy it is often primarily as a money saving measure rather than to mitigate climate change [58,59].”

“…and Palm, 2011; Kuijer and Watson, 2017) or what meanings as well as requirements are associated with personal hygiene, waste disposal, material adjusting or heating and cooling one’s home, which all impact the environment (e.g. Davies and Doyle, 2015; Kurz et al., 2015; Wilson et al., 2015).”

“The results of this study also support Whitmarsh (2009).”

“For example, researchers have highlighted the ways in which public and media discourses on climate change have progressively questioned the scientific basis for climate change (Akerlof et al., 2012; Barr, 2011; Carvalho and Burgess, 2005; Corner et al., 2012; Shukburgh et al., 2012; Whitmarsh, 2009), which has also be…”

“This may be because people do not know how their own actions can help address a problem about which they are aware, an issue identified in studies examining proenvironmental behaviors related to climate change (36), water conservation (27, 35), and household energy efficiency (37).”

“Understanding local residential use of green spaces provides local municipalities with vital information when determining which areas should be given more attention as well as when considering the expansion of these spaces (Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Voluntary mitigation measures appear particularly ineffective (Becken, 2007; Lorenzoni et al., 2007) as they are often ignored or adopted for reasons other than concern for the environment (Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Selain itu, konsep identitas lingkungan yang kuat, seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Whitmarsh (2009), juga dapat memotivasi individu untuk mengambil tindakan pro-lingkungan dan berpartisipasi dalam program-program lingkungan.”

“It is significant that this is (ostensibly) an unambiguously green behavior, hence less likely influenced by opposing or conflicting motives from other consumer motivations (Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“This is not surprising, as more extensive changes in behavior have generally been found to be more difficult than smaller, more incremental ones (Whitmarsh, 2009; Gifford, 2011; Gifford et al., 2011).”

“In addition there is evidence that the term ‘‘global warming’’ increases concern compared to ‘‘climate change’’ in some cases (Benjamin et al. 2017; Bolsen and Shapiro 2018; Whitmarsh 2009).”

“Qualitative methods are advantageous for exploration as they offer enhanced possibilities for contextually anchored analyses, especially when investigating complex issues such as sustainability (Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Although many companies establish environmental strategy statements as part of their greening efforts, the formulation of a strategy does not necessarily promote behavioural change (Baumgartner & Ebner, 2010; Howard-Grenville et al., 2014; Lo et al., 2012; Mishra, 2017; Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“However, studies show that such policies only succeed in a limited way [46] for there seems to be no direct way to encourage people to adopt a more eco-friendly lifestyle [47–50].”

“However, many studies show how, among those who believe climate change is happening and critically important, proenvironmental behaviors are not assured (e.g., Tobler et al., 2012; Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Elsewhere, it is also reported that only a minority of people are taking action to mitigate the effect (Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Nonetheless, some scholars argue that support is a type of attitudinal outcome, as individuals can support an issue without acting on it (e.g., Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“…los conocimientos, actitudes y creencias específicas ante este problema y, quizás lo más importante, el abordaje de las posibles acciones individuales y colectivas para hacerle frente (Brody, Zahran, Vedlitz y Glover, 2008; Heath y Gifford, 2006; Sundblad, Biel y Gärling, 2007; Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Although some research has shown that organizational policies do not necessarily positively influence employee behavior [23], Norton et al.”

“Não há uma relação necessariamente direta entre as crenças e as atitudes das pessoas em relação às questões ambientais (Whitmarsh, 2009; Carrus, Passafaro, & Bonnes, 2008; Winter & Koger, 2004).”

“D’autres travaux s’intéressent aux réponses comportementales face au changement climatique (Whitmarsh, 2009; Nilsson et al., 2004) et à la volonté de l’atténuer (Whitmarsh et O’Neill, 2010).”

“impact-oriented behaviors [21,25], and visible vs.”

“Los resultados de un estudio que probó ese modelo mostraron que las intenciones influyen directamente en la conducta mitigadora (Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“; Whitmarsh, 2009; Huebner et al., 2016; Lavelle et al., 2015; Whitmarsh et al., 2017; Whitmarsh & O ’ Neill, 2010).”

“Recycling is clearly not “enough” to mitigate climate change, and the mismatch between the scale of the issue of climate change and the level of response sought in standalone individual behavior change strategies (such as recycling) is now acknowledged from many perspectives [32,33].”

“One might expect policy-focused contestation to be prominent in political debates given the behavioural or cost implications of certain types of climate change policies (Bohr, 2016; Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Whitmarsh (2009) and Stoll-Kleemann (2001) suggested that social identity and status may act as barriers to change, and Crompton and Kasser (2010) explicitly linked identity with pro-environmental behaviour.”

“In studies related to climate change mitigation, Whitmarsh ( 2009 , pp.”

“Moreover, existing behavioral research has largely concentrated on urban populations, consumers, or the general public (Whitmarsh 2009; Van der Linden 2015; Wolske and Stern 2018), neglecting rural farmers whose decisions directly in fl uence environmental outcomes and food security.”

“Whitmarsh (2009) described pro-environmental behavior as individuals’ moral obligation when they believe their actions can effectively protect the environment.”

“For example, people may be more likely to (incorrectly) believe that recycling is more effective at mitigating climate change than energy use or meat consumption (Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“This particular finding is a confirmation that being able to comprehend the anthropogenic causes of global warming is key to a good understanding of the actions necessary to mitigate it (Busch et al., 2019; Truelove & Parks, 2012; Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“…while it is plausibly the case that communication with the public can increase belief in the reality and risks of climate change (e.g., Kerr & Wilson, 2018), it is less obviously the case that beliefs about climate change necessarily translate into action, or useful action (see Whitmarsh, 2009).”

“Additionally, future interventions should seek to enhance personal relevance of the ocean (Schultz, 2000; Whitmarsh, 2009) and foster people’s emotional connections to marine ecosystems, thereby encouraging individuals’ greater engagement in conservation behaviors that protect the ocean.”