Time frames and the distinction between affective and cognitive well-being
Open accessAbstract
We examined whether the empirical differences between affective well-being (AWB) and cognitive well-being (CWB) might be due to (a) the use of different time frames in measures of AWB and CWB or (b) structural differences. In Study 1, a multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) analysis indicated that levels of different components are more similar but do not converge completely when the same time frame is used. In Study 2, we found that people are more likely to consider global life circumstances (as opposed to specific events and activities) when they evaluate their CWB, regardless of the specific time frame. In both studies, the time frame did not moderate the associations between AWB and CWB and important correlates (personality, life circumstances).
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“Affective wellbeing refers to people’s experiences of positive and negative affect [34], and is central to mental wellbeing [35, 36].”
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“…essentially matching the properties of each control strategy to the different facets of SWB. Researchers have characterized the distinction between affective experience and life satisfaction as reflecting, respectively, recent events/activities and global life circumstances (Luhmann et al., 2012).”
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InfluentialThe association between life satisfaction and affective well-being
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“The study by Schimmack et al. (2002) accounts for measurement error using such methods.”
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“…that personality and specific activities have stronger effects on affective well-being than on cognitive well-being whereas general life circumstances have stronger effects on cognitive well-being than on affective well-being (Diener et al., 2010; Luhmann et al., 2012; Schimmack et al., 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHope Mediates the Relation between Income and Subjective Well-Being
Pleeging, E., Burger, M., & van Exel, J. N. A. (2020) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-020-00309-6 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
How does the context of physical activity influence perceived mood and wellbeing after exercise?
White, R. L., Ryan, D., Young, C., Elston, R., & Rossi, T. (2023) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2023.100504 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Tang, J., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change · doi:10.1080/14766825.2019.1711103 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Shahid, S., & Kundi, Y. M. (2021) · Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development · doi:10.1108/jsbed-05-2021-0199 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Batterham, P. J., Sunderland, M., Carragher, N., & Calear, A. L. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116685809 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
A Review of Psychological Well-Being and Mortality Risk
Trudel‐Fitzgerald, C., Kubzansky, L. D., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197512531.003.0006 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Workplace Favoritism and Workforce Sustainability: An Analysis of Employees’ Well-Being
Lasisi, T. T., Enea, C., & Eluwole, K. K. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su142214991 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
White, R. L., Olson, R. E., Parker, P. D., Astell‐Burt, T., & Lonsdale, C. (2018) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2018.03.002 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Validación de la Escala Satisfacción con la Vida en trabajadores peruanos
Universidad de San Martín de Porres, P., Calderón-De la Cruz, G., Lozano Chávez, F., Universidad de San Martín de Porres, P., Cantuarias Carthy, A., Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, P., Ibarra Carlos, L., & Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, P. (2018) · Liberabit: Revista Peruana de Psicología · doi:10.24265/liberabit.2018.v24n2.06 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Subjective well-being as a dynamic construct
Luhmann, M., Krasko, J., & Terwiel, S. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813995-0.00048-0 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationThinking About One’s Subjective Well-Being: Average Trends and Individual Differences
Luhmann, M., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2013) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-013-9448-5 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Changes or disruptions of social relationships can sometimes lead to increases in SWB (e.g., after divorce; Luhmann et al. 2012b), but they can also make people more lonely (Mauss et al. 2011).”
InfluentialSelf-citationSokić, J., Popov, S., Dinić, B. M., & Rastović, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624035 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Examining the within-person effect of affect on daily satisfaction
Jayawickreme, E., Tsukayama, E., & Kashdan, T. B. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.08.008 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Marchiondo, L. A., Fisher, G. G., Cortina, L. M., & Matthews, R. A. (2020) · Work Aging and Retirement · doi:10.1093/workar/waaa007 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Martikainen, S., Kudrna, L., & Dolan, P. (2021) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/10596011211047324 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…and affect have distinct correlates and reveal different insights about people ’ s psychological experiences (Kahn, 1990; Kahneman & Deaton, 2010; Luhmann et al., 2012a; 2012b), affecting our understanding of how well individuals, communities, and societies are doing and whose wellbeing should…”
BackgroundLee, A. L. H., Fung, W.-K., Datu, J. A. D., & Chung, K. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221127631 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Further complicating the situation, the COVID-19 pandemic has unprecedented effects on teacher education and teachers ’ well-being and self-ef fi cacy.”
BackgroundInfluentialSubjective Well-Being in Context
Luhmann, M., Murdoch, J. C., & Hawkley, L. C. (2014) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550614548075 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationHaga, S. M., Kinser, P. A., Wentzel‐Larsen, T., Lisøy, C., Garthus‐Niegel, S., Slinning, K., & Drozd, F. (2020) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2020.1738535 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The relationship between car shedding and subjective well-being
Hess, A.-K. (2022) · Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.trip.2022.100663 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Costa, P. J. C., Inman, R. A., & Moreira, P. (2022) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-022-10078-4 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Connecting Air Quality with Emotional Well-Being and Neighborhood Infrastructure in a US City
Lal, R. M., Das, K., Fan, Y., Barkjohn, K. K., Botchwey, N. D., Ramaswami, A., & Russell, A. G. (2020) · Environmental Health Insights · doi:10.1177/1178630220915488 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Samuel, R., & Kamenetsky, S. B. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.47678/cjhe.v52i1.189245 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Hu, J. M., & Rui, J. R. (2023) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2023-4-2 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Affective well-being is the intensity and frequency of experiencing positive and negative feelings and moods (Luhmann et al., 2012).”
InfluentialNavarro‐Carrillo, G., Valor‐Segura, I., & Moya, M. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00506-4 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Daily Challenge/Hindrance Demands and Cognitive Wellbeing: A Multilevel Moderated Mediation Model
Chen, H., Wang, H., Yuan, M., & Xu, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.616002 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Karakuş, M., Ersozlu, Z., Uşak, M., & Ocean, J. (2021) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/21.20.237 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Affective well-being is comprised of the strength and regularity of good and bad feelings and state of mind (Luhmann et al., 2012).”
BackgroundWell-Being Science for Teaching and the General Public
Tov, W., Wirtz, D., Kushlev, K., Biswas‐Diener, R., & Diener, E. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916211046946 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Religion and spiritual influence on Igbo entrepreneurial behaviour and persistence
Igwe, P. A., Ochinanwata, C., & Emeordi, R. C. (2023) · Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship · doi:10.1080/08276331.2023.2253683 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Various factors influence people’s evaluation of their lives: their subjective well-being, life satisfaction, life fulfilment, etc. Religion and spiritual values also motivate both individuals and communities (Krause 2011; Luhmann et al. 2012; VanderWeele 2017).”
Tordera, N., García, D. M., & Martinolli, G. (2020) · Revista Psicologia Organizações e Trabalho · doi:10.17652/rpot/2020.4.13 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Household gift-giving consumption and subjective well-being: evidence from rural China
Chiu, Y., Wang, Z., & Ye, X. (2022) · Review of Economics of the Household · doi:10.1007/s11150-022-09631-9 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Some studies suggest that SWB comprises affective and cognitive components (Luhmann et al., 2012; Tsurumi et al., 2021).”
BackgroundKarakuş, M., Toprak, M., Çalışkan, Ö., & Crawford, M. (2024) · International Journal of Educational Management · doi:10.1108/ijem-07-2023-0335 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Cognitive control moderates the health benefits of trait self-regulation in young adults
Hakun, J. G., & Findeison, M. A. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109572 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Lee, A., Chan, W., & Ng, J. C. K. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-04130-7 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Several previous studies have suggested that affect and life satisfaction report are consistently found to be empirically distinct (Lucas et al., 1996; Luhmann et al., 2012).”
BackgroundLachmann, B., Doebler, A., Sindermann, C., Sariyska, R., Cooper, A. J., Haas, H., & Montag, C. (2020) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-020-00231-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The hierarchical framework of wellbeing (HiFWB)
Disabato, D. J., Goodman, F. R., & Kashdan, T. B. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1515423 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Research suggests the difference between affect and appraisal in SWB may be in the sources of information used by raters; an individual uses specific events and activities to assess affect, while personal narratives are primarily used for assessing cognitive appraisals (Luhmann et al., 2012).”
der Vyver, C. P. V. (2020) · Perspectives in Education · doi:10.18820/2519593x/pie.v38.i2.06 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Enfermedad crónica: satisfacción vital y estilos de personalidad adaptativos
Elena, M. J. S., Montes, J. M. G., Romera, M. V., & Álvarez, M. P. (2014) · Clínica y Salud · doi:10.1016/j.clysa.2014.06.007 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Schmid, J., Moschko, T., Riccio, M. T., Snyder, K. A., Gawrilow, C., & Stadler, G. (2023) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12482 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kraft, P., & Kraft, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1283601 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Vittersø, J. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-69292-5_4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Luhmann, M., & Bleidorn, W. (2017) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550617732818 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationAdolescents’ subjective well-being: The role of adolescents’ and mothers’ time perspectives
Măirean, C., & Diaconu‐Gherasim, L. R. (2018) · Time & Society · doi:10.1177/0961463x17752282 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Role of Social Capital and Remote Chinese Villagers’ Well-Being
Fan, V. S., & Mahadevan, R. (2018) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-018-2020-2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Income Trajectories and Subjective Well-Being: Linking Administrative Records and Survey Data
Schöllgen, I., Kersten, N., & Rose, U. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16234779 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Of particular importance in this context, the time frame used to assess life satisfaction and emotional well-being usually differs: the occurrence of positive and negative emotions is evaluated over a specific period of time, whereas life satisfaction is rated without providing a specific time frame [8].”
BackgroundZheng, X., Chen, J., & Li, Y. (2021) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-021-01104-y · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Routineness of Social Interactions Is Associated With Higher Affective Well-Being in Older Adults
Luo, M., Yordanova, K., Macdonald, B., & Hülür, G. (2024) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbae057 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“This seems to be reasonable, as affective well-being could be more reactive toward specific events and activities than cognitive well-being, which is evaluated referencing to global life circumstances (Luhmann et al., 2012).”
BackgroundChan, S. S. M., Wong, O. W. H., Hussain, S., Tsoi, K. K. F., Ma, K. K. Y., Chau, S. W. H., Ma, S. L., Lai, K. Y. C., Chu, C. W., Lo, H., et al. (2025) · The Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific · doi:10.1016/j.lanwpc.2025.101533 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Zhang, Q., Yang, J., Niu, T., Wen, K.-H., Hong, X., Wu, Y., & Wang, M. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-17160-y · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Users’ emotional health affects the formulation and implementation of government policies [8, 9], and during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is even more important to pay attention to changes and developments in emotions.”
BackgroundKelley, T. M., Hollows, J., Pransky, J. B., Kryvanos, A., & Bowen, S. W. (2021) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012211022783 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Affective well-being has been defined as the frequency and intensity of positive and negative emotions and moods (Luhmann et al., 2012).”
BackgroundGenes, Environments and Core Features of Eudaimonic Wellbeing
Røysamb, E., & Nes, R. B. (2016) · International handbooks of quality-of-life · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42445-3_16 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Orthostatic cardiovascular profile of subjective well-being
Davydov, D. M., & Czabak-Garbacz, R. (2016) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.11.014 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Guimond, A., Kubzansky, L. D., Boehm, J. K., Mika Kivimaki, B., & Trudel‐Fitzgerald, C. (2021) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110414 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Luo, T., Law, Y. W., & Lai, C. C. S. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03376-5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Attitudes toward events or behaviors directly influence the process of cognitive appraisals which shapes individuals’ perception of whether their lives are going well (Busseri & Sadava, 2011; Luhmann et al., 2012).”
BackgroundJayawickreme, E., Tsukayama, E., Blackie, L. E. R., & Weiss, B. (2020) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2020.1818811 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group being are influenced by appraisals of global life circumstances (Luhmann et al., 2012).”
BackgroundA Guide to Causal Inference in Life-Event Studies
Lawes, M., West, S. G., & Eid, M. (2025) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459241302015 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Key Factors to Consider When Using Self-Report Measures in Life-Event Studies Time frames: Self-report measures can vary in the time frames to which they refer (e.g., Luhmann, Hawkley, et al., 2012; Scharbert et al., 2024).”
Self-citationHoy, A. V., Rzeszutek, M., Pięta, M., Navas, J. M. M., Rodríguez-Mora, Á., Midgley, N., Omylinska‐Thurston, J., Dopierala, A., Falkenström, F., Ferlin, J., et al. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.07.065 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Several authors have found that these two elements are associated, but separable constructs, especially regarding their temporal stability, various predictors, and different backgrounds (Eid and Diener, 2004; Kaczmarek et al., 2015; Luhmann et al., 2012a).”
BackgroundLife events and life satisfaction: Estimating effects of multiple life events in combined modelsPreprint
Krämer, M. D., Rohrer, J. M., Lucas, R. E., & Richter, D. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wfg8h · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Well-Being of Parents in the Year After Childbirth
Brajša-žganec, A., Džida, M., Brkljačić, T., Kaliterna-Lipovčan, L., & Lučić, L. (2022) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x221096799 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Childbirth initially decreased AWB, but with time parents reported an increase in positive affect (Luhmann et al., 2012b).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialŻemojtel-Piotrowska, M. A., Piotrowski, J. P., Pers, P., Tomiałowicz, E., & Clinton, A. B. (2019) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.24425/119513 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
What You See is What You Get: The Effect of Perceived Inequality on Subjective Well-Being
John, M., Bless, H., & Wänke, M. (2025) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-025-00905-4 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“As mentioned in our preregistration emotions are more likely to reflect contextual influences than general well-being (Luhmann et al., 2012) and are therefore more likely to capture situational and experimentally induced contexts.”
InfluentialPredictors of generativity and satisfaction with life in a sample of women offenders
Kashy, D. A., & Morash, M. (2021) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2021.1929981 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Research has provided considerable evidence that both poverty and unemployment are negatively related to life satisfaction (Diener et al., 2017; Kahneman & Deaton, 2010; Lucas et al., 2004; Luhmann et al., 2012; Luhmann et al., 2012; Schimmack et al., 2008).”
BackgroundOmoregie, J., & Carson, J. F. (2022) · Mental Health and Social Inclusion · doi:10.1108/mhsi-06-2022-0040 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Jo, D., & Koh, C.-D. (2021) · BMJ Military Health · doi:10.1136/bmjmilitary-2020-001702 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kwon, Y., Choi, E., Choi, J., & Choi, I. (2018) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-018-0040-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Chen, Y., Hu, F., Xiao, Q., & Liu, Z. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-95435-7 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Cha, S. E., Ku, X., Lee, S., & Choi, I. (2024) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-024-10058-1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“A substantial body of prior research has explored how major events, particularly negative ones, influence changes in well-being within individuals (Anusic et al., 2014b; Diener et al., 2006; Lucas, 2007; Luhmann et al., 2012b).”
- Authors
- Luhmann, M., Hawkley, L. C., Eid, M., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Freie Universität Berlin (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Luhmann, Maike
- Venue
- Journal of Research in Personality
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-08
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 431-441
- ISSN
- 0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3571101
- OpenAlex
- W2007787963
- Cited by
- 149
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 7.70
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999)
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- emotional well-being, cognitive well-being, time frames, living conditions, personality, measurement convergence, subjective well-being
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