Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being.
Abstract
According to the hedonic treadmill model, good and bad events temporarily affect happiness, but people quickly adapt back to hedonic neutrality. The theory, which has gained widespread acceptance in recent years, implies that individual and societal efforts to increase happiness are doomed to failure. The recent empirical work outlined here indicates that 5 important revisions to the treadmill model are needed. First, individuals' set points are not hedonically neutral. Second, people have different set points, which are partly dependent on their temperaments. Third, a single person may have multiple happiness set points: Different components of well-being such as pleasant emotions, unpleasant emotions, and life satisfaction can move in different directions. Fourth, and perhaps most important, well-being set points can change under some conditions. Finally, individuals differ in their adaptation to events, with some individuals changing their set point and others not changing in reaction to some external event. These revisions offer hope for psychologists and policy-makers who aim to decrease human misery and increase happiness.
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Expectations and reference points are not static, but dynamic.
“This suggests that expectations and reference points are not static, but dynamic (Diener et al., 2006).”
From Measuring Subjective Wellbeing: Recommendations on Measures for use by National Governments (2012) · cites this paper as Diener et al., 2006
Set points for emotional well-being can vary, shift over time, and differ across emotional and cognitive dimensions.
“Instead, set points for emotional well‐being can vary, shift over time, and differ across emotional and cognitive dimensions of well‐being.”
From "I don't grieve as much as I used to": A qualitative study on parents of children with rare and undiagnosed conditions navigating grief in the context of uncertainty. (2025) · cites this paper as Diener et al., 2006
Recent psychological theories, including revisions to hedonic treadmill model, suggest individuals do not always return to fixed baseline of well-being after major life events.
“Recent psychological theories, including revisions to the hedonic treadmill model, suggest that individuals do not always return to a fixed baseline of well‐being after major life events (Diener et al., 2006).”
From "I don't grieve as much as I used to": A qualitative study on parents of children with rare and undiagnosed conditions navigating grief in the context of uncertainty. (2025) · cites this paper as Diener et al., 2006
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“A change in income level might affect happiness in the short turn, but with time people tend to go back to their previous happiness levels (Suh et al. 1996; Easterlin 2003; Diener et al. 2006; Lucas et al. 2003) and more so when experiencing income rises than income falls (Burchardt 2005).”
Ogbonnaya, C. N., Tillman, C. J., & Gonzalez, K. (2018) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601118767244 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
How mindfulness reduces BNPL usage and how that relates to overall well-being
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Understanding role stressors and job satisfaction over time using adaptation theory.
Ritter, K., Matthews, R. A., Ford, M. T., & Henderson, A. A. (2016) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000152 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Lamu, A. N., & Olsen, J. A. (2016) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.01.046 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Yoga practice in the UK: a cross-sectional survey of motivation, health benefits and behaviours
Cartwright, T., Mason, H., Porter, A., & Pilkington, K. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-031848 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Personality, Humor Styles and Happiness: Happy People Have Positive Humor Styles
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Harkness, A. R., Reynolds, S. M., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2013) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.823438 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Geiger, S. M., Fischer, D., Schrader, U., & Grossman, P. (2019) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916519880897 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
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“Second, it has been observed that at least some psychological states tend to fluctuate around a “set point” (e.g., Suh et al., 1996; Diener and Lucas, 1999; Diener et al., 2006; Keltner, 2009).”
BackgroundPutwain, D. W., Stockinger, K., Gallard, D., & Beaumont, J. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12266 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
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Motivating Job Characteristics and Happiness at Work: A Multilevel Perspective
Oerlemans, W., & Bakker, A. (2018) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000318 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“…and happiness during specific work activities depends on the degree to which similar motivating characteristics are also present in the general work environment, rather than the overall favorability of the circumstances alone (Diener et al., 2006; Kahneman, 1999; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2012).”
BackgroundMund, M., Johnson, M. D., & Nestler, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.666928 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“For example, when considering life satisfaction, some individuals might always be more satisfied than others, relatively independent of current circumstances or external influences (Diener et al., 2006; Lucas, 2007).”
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“At the same time, the literature implies that substantial interpersonal differences in both the levels and the stability of satisfaction ratings exist and that they cannot be ascribed solely to dispositional factors (Diener et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialTemperament and brain networks of attention
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- Authors
- Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Singapore Management University (SG)
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 2006-05
- Volume
- 61
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 305-314
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W2052283723
- Cited by
- 1,946
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 82 · 2025: 98 · 2024: 99 · 2023: 129 · 2022: 123 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 155 · 2019: 85 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 96 · 2016: 89 · 2015: 126 · 2014: 107 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 124
- FWCI
- 75.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Singapore Management University Institutional Knowledge (InK) (Singapore Management University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Keywords
- hedonic treadmill, adaptation theory, well-being, life satisfaction, emotions, temperament, individual differences, happiness policy, subjective well-being
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Happiness, Humans, Psychological Theory, Quality of Life
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