Glucocorticoids and the innate immune system: crosstalk with the toll-like receptor signaling network
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are responsible for the recognition of a variety of microbial pathogens and the initial induction of immune and inflammatory responses. These responses are normally restricted by the adrenally produced glucocorticoid hormones which provide a feedback mechanism to curb unabated inflammation. Glucocorticoids act through a ligand-dependent transcription factor-the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which engages in a complex network of protein:protein and protein:DNA interactions ultimately activating or repressing target gene transcription. Not surprisingly, multiple mechanisms account for the glucocorticoid interference with TLR signaling including enhanced expression of the natural inhibitors of TLR pathways, direct repression of TLR-activated transcriptional regulators and cross-utilization of cofactors essential for both GR and TLR signaling. Here we discuss recent and unexpected examples of crosstalk between the two transcriptional networks and the emerging role of GR in the regulation of innate immunity.
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Tethering of a GR monomer increases transcription of STAT3, STAT5, CREB, and C/EBP-alpha responsive genes while inhibiting the activity of NF-kappaB, AP-1, ATFs, and IRF3.
“For instance, tethering of a GR monomer was reported to increase the transcription of STAT3, STAT5, cAMP responsive element binding (CREB), and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein (C/EBP)-α responsive genes while inhibiting the activity of NF-κB, AP-1, activating transcriptions factors (ATFs), and IRF3 (72, 73, 86, 87).”
From The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [86]
Both composite and tethering GREs enable direct transactivation or transrepression, and the resulting effect on gene transcription is dictated by the transcription factors to which GRs are bound.
“Interestingly, both composite and tethering GREs enable direct transactivation or transrepression; the resulting effect on gene transcription is dictated by the transcription factors to which GRs are bound.”
From The HPA – Immune Axis and the Immunomodulatory Actions of Glucocorticoids in the Brain (2014) · cites this paper as [86]
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Neuroinflammation and depression: A review
Troubat, R., Barone, P., Leman, S., Desmidt, T., Cressant, A., Atanasova, B., Brizard, B., El Hage, W., Surget, A., Belzung, C., et al. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.14720 · Cited by 1,107 · see citing works
“All of them focus on the genomic effects of GRs and on the induced expression of immune-related genes promoting pro-inflammatory responses (Chinenov & Rogatsky, 2007; Galon et al., 2002).”
BackgroundReddy, T. E., Pauli, F., Sprouse, R. O., Neff, N. F., Newberry, K. M., Garabedian, M. J., & Myers, R. M. (2009) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.097022.109 · Cited by 543 · see citing works
“…(Auphan et al. 1995; Scheinman et al. 1995; Rhen and Cidlowski 2005), as well as GC-regulated genes involved in apoptosis (Viegas et al. 2008), cell cycle progression (Rogatsky et al. 1997), circadian rhythms (Balsalobre et al. 2000), and intercellular signaling (Chinenov and Rogatsky 2007).”
BackgroundNuclear receptor transrepression pathways that regulate inflammation in macrophages and T cells
Glass, C. K., & Saijo, K. (2010) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2748 · Cited by 619 · see citing works
One Hormone, Two Actions: Anti- and Pro-Inflammatory Effects of Glucocorticoids
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“The liganded GR was also found to prevent the recruitment of IRF3 (which then acts as a co-activator) to p65 on NF-κB target genes upon TLR4 stimulation by LPS (94, 123).”
BackgroundBusillo, J. M., & Cidlowski, J. A. (2013) · Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.tem.2012.11.005 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Neuroinflammation, memory, and depression: new approaches to hippocampal neurogenesis
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“Toll-like receptor families (TLRs) are claimed to be upregulated and overactivated under hypercortisolism through multiple mechanisms, which subsequently augment the secretion of TNF-α [258].”
BackgroundBeck, I. M. E., Vanden Berghe, W., Vermeulen, L., Yamamoto, K. R., Haegeman, G., & De Bosscher, K. (2009) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/er.2009-0013 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
“Interestingly, SOCS1, which appears to be up-regulated by GCs in hematopoietic cells and immune cell cancers (267, 388, 513, 518, 519), can hamper the transcription of DUSP1, probably via the association of GR and SOCS1 (520).”
BackgroundMinireview: Latest Perspectives on Antiinflammatory Actions of Glucocorticoids
De Bosscher, K., & Haegeman, G. (2009) · Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/me.2008-0283 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
“It is in this respect important to note that in the complex transcriptional networks stimulated by both TLRs and GCs various other cross talk mechanisms have been identified that cosupport the emerging role of GR in the regulation of innate immunity (84).”
BackgroundGlucocorticoid sensitivity in health and disease
Quax, R. A., Manenschijn, L., Koper, J. W., Hazes, J. M., Lamberts, S. W. J., van Rossum, E. F. C., & Feelders, R. A. (2013) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/nrendo.2013.183 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Opposing effects of alcohol on the immune system
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“For instance, glucocorticoids modulate TLR signaling by affecting: 1) downstream protein kinases, 2) suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS), 3) GR-inducible leucine zipper protein, and 4) GR- AC C EP TE D M AN U SC R IP T mediated increased expression of TLRs (Chinenov and Rogatsky 2007).”
InfluentialRos-Bernal, F., Hunot, S., Herrero, M. T., Parnadeau, S., Corvol, J.-C., Lu, L., Alvarez-Fischer, D., Carrillo-de Sauvage, M. A., Saurini, F., Coussieu, C., et al. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1017820108 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
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“Similar proposals have been made before (for example Miner et al., 2005; Chinenov & Rogatsky, 2007; McMaster & Ray, 2008).”
Sohn, K. M., Lee, S., Kim, H. J., Cheon, S., Jeong, H., Lee, J.-Y., Kim, I. S., Silwal, P., Kim, Y. J., Paik, S., et al. (2020) · Journal of Korean Medical Science · doi:10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e343 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Glucocorticoid receptors: finding the middle ground
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“Rogatsky and colleagues recently demonstrated the importance of GRIP1 in homeostatic macrophage activation and function (34).”
InfluentialModels and Methods to Investigate Acute Stress Responses in Cattle
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Circadian Clocks, Stress, and Immunity
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Neuroinflammation as an etiological trigger for depression comorbid with inflammatory bowel disease
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“Moreover, glucocorticoids induce expression of TLR and secretion of inflammatory mediators by endothelial cells via P2Y2 purinergic receptors [325, 326].”
BackgroundThe Glucocorticoid Receptor: Isoforms, Functions, and Contribution to Glucocorticoid Sensitivity
Lockett, J., Inder, W. J., & Clifton, V. L. (2024) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/endrev/bnae008 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
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“…such as the architecture of the regulatory recognition sequences in the promoter region of GR-sensitive genes, the availability and activity of additional transcription factors, co-factors, as well as regulatory inputs from synergistic and antagonistic pathways (Chinenov and Rogatsky, 2007).”
BackgroundShipp, L. E., Lee, J. V., Yu, C.-Y., Pufall, M. A., Zhang, P., Scott, D. K., & Wang, J.-C. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013754 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“[1,2,3,4,5].”
Xie, Y., Tolmeijer, S. H., Oskam, J. M., Tonkens, T., Meijer, A. H., & Schaaf, M. J. M. (2019) · Disease Models & Mechanisms · doi:10.1242/dmm.037887 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Upregulation of various pro-inflammatory genes after glucocorticoid treatment has been observed in several cell types (Busillo et al., 2011; Chinenov and Rogatsky, 2007; Ding et al., 2010; Galon et al., 2002; Lannan et al., 2012) and the GR has been shown to activate pro-inflammatory genes in…”
Effects of Glucocorticoids in the Immune System
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“Glucocorticoids are steroidal compounds that infl uence both arms of the immune system at multiple levels [ 7 , 8 ].”
BackgroundRole of transcriptional coregulator GRIP1 in the anti-inflammatory actions of glucocorticoids
Chinenov, Y. V., Gupte, R., Dobrovolná, J., Flammer, J. R., Liu, B., Michelassi, F. E., & Rogatsky, I. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1206059109 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“TLR-activated signaling cascades ultimately converge on a few transcription factors of the NFκB/Rel, AP1, and IRF families (2), which, acting in concert, induce the expression of hundreds of genes encoding cytokines, chemokines, and other proinflammatory mediators.”
BackgroundDefining the role of glucocorticoids in inflammation
Ronchetti, S., Migliorati, G., Bruscoli, S., & Riccardi, C. (2018) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs20171505 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
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“SOCS1 mRNA is induced by GCs in some hematopoietic and immune cell lines (17); whether SOCS1 is GC-regulated as a distal signal in TLR activation cascades has not been reported.”
BackgroundNatural Stressors and Ranavirus Susceptibility in Larval Wood Frogs (Rana sylvatica)
Reeve, B. C., Crespi, E. J., Whipps, C. M., & Brunner, J. L. (2013) · EcoHealth · doi:10.1007/s10393-013-0834-6 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
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Glucocorticoid-Induced Attenuation of the Inflammatory Response in Zebrafish
Chatzopoulou, A., Heijmans, J. P. M., Burgerhout, E., Oskam, N., Spaink, H. P., Meijer, A. H., & Schaaf, M. J. M. (2016) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2015-2050 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Immune-Neuro-Endocrine Reflexes, Circuits, and Networks: Physiologic and Evolutionary Implications
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“Ogawa et al. (93) demonstrated that for a specific set of IRF-dependent genes, the activated GR sequesters the co-activator p65 from IRF3 and IRF7 homodimers on interferon-stimulated response element (IRSE) following TLR4 and TLR9, but not TLR3 signaling.”
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“cytokine production [59,60].”
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“This argument is, however, complicated by increasing evidence implicating corticosteroids and GRs in immune-reconstitutive processes (10, 11).”
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“GCs binding to GCR can downregulate the transcriptional factor NF-кB and AP-1, the key molecules of TLRs signaling pathway [30].”
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“Whether the activated GR induces or represses gene expression depends on the architecture of the GRE, its associated promoters, the availability and activity of additional transcription factors, co-activators and corepressors, as well as regulatory inputs from other synergistic and antagonistic pathways [20] .”
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“The activation of TLRs via the repression of NF-κB and AP-1 or via the induction of GC-induced leucine zipper (GILZ) orMKP-1 is a hallmark feature of inflammation (55).”
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“The underlying mechanisms involved in this protective effect include inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines and promoting anti-inflammatory cytokines (25,26).”
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“Dexamethasone is a glucocorticoid that displays several anti-inflammatory actions via genomic and nongenomic means, and it might block TLR signaling by multiple mechanisms (Chinenov and Rogatsky, 2007; Stahn and Buttgereit, 2008).”
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“On the other hand, GILZ could also inhibit TLR2-derived intracellular signalling, since NF-κB is activated downstream of the TLR2 signalling pathway, which further reduces neutrophil activity [24].”
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Glucocorticoids and Toll-like receptor 2 cooperatively induce acute-phase serum amyloid A
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“mucosal host defense is the inhibition of the TLR response.(42,43) TLRs are key sensors of environmental danger signals including microbial products and are major drivers of the innate immune response.”
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“GR is the receptor of cortisol and other glucocorticoids, and GR-mediated response to CORT administration is critical to maintain homeostasis (Chinenov and Rogatsky, 2007).”
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“The lack of increase in the cytokine release might be explained by the downstream blockage of the TLR2 receptor signaling by a glucocorticosteroid, and a mere increase in the amount of TLR2 does not relieve this blocking effect.(22) ∆ ∆”
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“…and Src-3) that are crucial in facilitating chromatin remodelling, assembly of general transcription factors and transcription of target genes by the recruitment of histone acetyltransferases and methyltransferases to specific enhancer/promoter regions (Xu & Li 2003, Chinenov & Rogatsky 2007).”
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“The resulting release of ACTH and elevation in circulating corticosterone would exert powerful immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory actions (20, 104) and also attenuate microglial activation (72), explaining the HS dampening of the brain’s innate immune response to microdialyzed acidic perfusion fluid in the SON ar…”
Interferon-Alpha in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
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Molecular Cross-Talk Between Nuclear Receptors and Nuclear Factor-κB
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“The inflammation is normally restricted by GC as a feedback mechanism (14).”
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“Its activity as transcription factor depends on the GRE sequence, activity of co-factors and chromatin accessibility (10, 11).”
Background
- Authors
- Chinenov, Y., & Rogatsky, I.
- Affiliations
- Hospital for Special Surgery (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rogatsky, Inez
- Venue
- Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2007-09
- Volume
- 275
- Issue
- 1-2
- Pages
- 30-42
- ISSN
- 0303-7207 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2060273819
- Cited by
- 133
- References
- 153
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 3.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Receptor Mechanisms and Signaling
- Keywords
- glucocorticoids, Toll-like receptors, innate immunity, glucocorticoid receptor, Toll-like receptor signaling, inflammation, transcriptional regulation, transcriptional cofactors
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Glucocorticoids, Humans, Immunity, Innate, Receptors, Glucocorticoid, Transcription, Genetic, Signal Transduction, Receptor Cross-Talk, Toll-Like Receptors
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