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The space between us: A neurophilosophical framework for the investigation of human interpersonal space
Abstract
Despite a plethora of knowledge, both behavioural and neural, of the mechanisms defining space around a singular body little is known about the neural mechanisms that encode space between bodies. Yet, the space between people creates and defines the social dynamics of our interactions with others. This review brings together evidence from social psychology, which considers individuals and their interactions as whole beings, with neuroscientific evidence of the factors involved in spatial coding to propose a framework by which we can investigate and interpret the neural substrates of 'social space'. A key feature of this framework is that space around the body is defined from a functional 'action-centred' perspective; the same underlying processes mediate interactions with both inanimate and animate objects, with links to emotive and motivational systems encoding the saliency of those interactions. The investigation of the neural mechanisms underlying interpersonal space is timely given the increasing density of our populations and can provide a richer interpretation of findings from neuroimaging studies of prosocial behaviour which may further insights into populations with social dysfunction.
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“Perceived threat from others is considered to be one of the most salient factors in mediating the equilibrium between interpersonal distance and social interaction (Lloyd, 2009).”
From OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among highly empathic individuals (2015) · cites this paper as Lloyd, 2009
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OT promotes closer interpersonal distance among highly empathic individuals
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“Once an individual’s interpersonal space has been encroached, the person may feel threatened, emphasizing the important influence of emotional and motivational factors on the use of space between people (Horowitz et al., 1964; Lloyd, 2009).”
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Candini, M., Battaglia, S., Benassi, M., di Pellegrino, G., & Frassinetti, F. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-82223-2 · Cited by 73
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Ferri, F., Ardizzi, M., Ambrosecchia, M., & Gallese, V. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075758 · Cited by 74
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“As a part of non-verbal communication, IPD allows to coordinate social behavior in face-to-face encounters (1).”
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Tajadura‐Jiménez, A., Pantelidou, G., Rebacz, P., Västfjäll, D., & Manos Tsakiris, A. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026083 · Cited by 76
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BackgroundA neurocognitive study of the emotional impact of geometrical criteria of architectural space
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“Adopting an embodied perspective (Ferguson & Bargh, 2004), some scholars suggested these systems share common mechanisms regulating space around the body (Iachini, Pagliaro, & Ruggiero, 2015; Lloyd, 2009).”
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“Assaultive trauma is characterized by forceful invasion of the peripersonal space, which is defined as a margin of safety around the body [30–32].”
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BackgroundResultSocial Distance during the COVID-19 Pandemic Reflects Perceived Rather Than Actual Risk
Iachini, T., Frassinetti, F., Ruotolo, F., Sbordone, F. L., Ferrara, A., Arioli, M., Pazzaglia, F., Bosco, A., Candini, M., Lopez, A., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18115504 · Cited by 53
In your place: neuropsychological evidence for altercentric remapping in embodied perspective taking
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Defensive functions provoke similar psychophysiological reactions in reaching and comfort spaces
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“, 2004); however, a violation of expected IPD can be construed as a threat and induce a state of anxiety (Lloyd, 2009; Perry et al., 2013).”
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Invisible body illusion modulates interpersonal space
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Personal Space of Male War Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
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“In addition, a number of other factors, including gender, personality, mood state, the nature of a relationship, level of intimacy, social norms, race, ethnicity, and social status, can influence how personal space is defined (Gadit, 2010; Lloyd, 2009; Vranic, 2003).”
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“However, a close distance could also be intrusive and threatening, especially when interacting with disliked persons (Lloyd, 2009).”
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“This slight trend coincides with the results obtained in previous studies which indicated that for the facial expression of a negative emotion such as Anger , the IPD increases, while the IPD is lower for positive emotions (Hall, 1963; Marsh et al., 2005; Welsch et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResultPreparing to Grasp Emotionally Laden Stimuli
de Oliveira, L. A. S., Imbiriba, L. A., Russo, M. M., Nogueira‐Campos, A. A., Rodrigues, É. C., Pereira, M. G., Volchan, E., & Vargas, C. D. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045235 · Cited by 30
“Besides, contemporary theories of emotion are based on the belief that, in order to survive, animals should be capable of identifying either threat signals that allow them to avoid risks to their body envelope or safety signals that allow them a sense of protection [12,45].”
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“However, when IPD norms are violated, it can be construed as a threat and induce a state of anxiety (Lloyd, 2009).”
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“Such distance reflects a “personal” space that includes close relationships and informal contact, but typically excludes formal business-type interactions (Hall, 1966; Lloyd, 2009).”
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Face masks reduce interpersonal distance in virtual reality
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“…cells (receiving visual, tactile, and auditory input) in parietal and prefrontal areas of the brain; the body-centred receptive fields of these cells construct a `margin of safety' around the individual when an object approaches/enters peripersonal space (Graziano and Cooke 2006; Lloyd 2009).”
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“The representation of peripersonal space in ASC may affect higher level social behaviour, for instance, in maintaining socially appropriate distances (see Lloyd, 2009).”
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“Personal space has been theorized to serve a protective function by regulating one's distance from potential emotional and physical threats while also allowing for an appropriate level of intimacy and trust in social contexts (Lloyd, 2009).”
Rosenberger, L. A., Naef, M., Eisenegger, C., & Lamm, C. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104001 · Cited by 19
“Too close a distance feels intrusive and threatening, yet too far a distance feels standoffish and distrusting (Lloyd, 2009).”
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“A far less explored issue is that of how space is remapped in relation to other bodies [7,8,9].”
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“…one’s personal zone is violated, such as by having another person come too close, feelings of discomfort emerge which often then evoke compensatory behaviors such as withdrawal or flight from the intruder (Brozzoli, Makin, Cardinali, Holmes, & Farne, 2011; Hall, 1963; Lloyd, 2009; Sommer, 1959).”
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My social comfort zone: Attachment anxiety shapes peripersonal and interpersonal space
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“Even though PPS and interpersonal distance are different constructs, they are related 28,29 with the former modulating the latter 30 and critically, the little research available on personal space and attachment anxiety suggests a relationship be-tween attachment style and interpersonal distance.”
The role of group membership and culture in interpersonal distance regulation
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“People are able to interpret the spatial arrangement between individuals and perceive the social meaning from it, giving them K information on the relationship between people (Hall 1966; Lloyd 2009; Wellens and Goldberg 1978).”
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“On the contrary, any intrusion into the personal space that an individual wants to secure is interpreted as a threat and triggers an anxious state [36], [37].”
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“The peripersonal space is believed to be the “margin of safety” around the body, which, when invaded, arouses discomfort and triggers appropriate defensive responses (Bogdanova et al., 2021; Lloyd, 2009; Serino, 2019).”
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Affiliative Stimuli as Primers to Prosocial Predispositions
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“It has been proposed that even imagining ourselves in a particular social interaction can be sufficient to engage those cognitive and motor mechanisms necessary for the actual encounter (Lloyd, 2009).”
BackgroundContrast effect of emotional context on interpersonal distance with neutral social stimuli
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Rubinsten, O., Korem, N., Perry, A., Goldberg, M., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2020) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.1613 · Cited by 9
“…thought to be important for the regulation of an individual's interactions with others in interpersonal, as well as in cultural, contexts (e.g., Aiello, Nicosia, & Thompson, 1979; Albert & Dabbs, 1970; Feeney, 1999; Kaitz, Bar-Haim, Lehrer, & Grossman, 2004; Lloyd, 2009; Sinha & Mukherjee, 1996).”
BackgroundBeyond fear: Patients with posttraumatic stress disorder fail to engage in safety cues
Bastos, A. F., da Silva, L. M., de Oliveira, J. M., Oliveira, L., Pereira, M. G., Figueira, I. L. D. V., Mendlowicz, M. V., Berger, W., da Luz, M., Campos, B., et al. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100380 · Cited by 8
The influence of face mask on social spaces depends on the behavioral immune system
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“This spatial coherence between action and social spaces suggested that they share common motor processes (Lloyd, 2009; Coello and Iachini, 2015, 2021).”
BackgroundOren, C., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-11356-0 · Cited by 8
Active peripersonal space for more intuitive HRI
Holthaus, P., & Wachsmuth, S. (2012) · IEEE-RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots (Humanoids) · doi:10.1109/humanoids.2012.6651567 · Cited by 8
The Show Must Go On: On the Use of Embodiment, Space and Gesture in Computational Storytelling
Wicke, P., & Veale, T. (2020) · New Generation Computing · doi:10.1007/s00354-020-00106-y · Cited by 8
“Proxemics the study of how humans use space, informs how our robot actors interact A more detailed neurophilosophical framework of spatial behavior can be found in [31], and a computational approach to the analysis of proxemics can be found in [6].”
BackgroundCommentary – Autism Spectrum Disorder: Spectrum or Cluster?
Pruett, J. R., & Povinelli, D. J. (2016) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1650 · Cited by 7
“In particular, we propose that in the first few seconds of dyadic interaction, relevant behaviors position individuals along three dimensions: (1) social spacing [Lloyd, 2009], (2) the quality of eye contact and joint attention behavior [Emery, 2000], and (3) the timing of communicative exchange [Dunham & Dunham, 1995…”
Cartaud, A., Duriez, P., Querenghi, J., Nandrino, J., Gorwood, P. A. P. M., Viltart, O., & Coello, Y. (2024) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.3098 · Cited by 7
“Conversely, a too short IPD may generate a feeling of discomfort (Hayduk, 1978; Kennedy et al., 2009; Lloyd, 2009; Sommer, 1959), associated with a pronounced physiological response leading, in most cases, to defensive behaviour (Cartaud et al., 2018, 2020; Kennedy et al., 2009; Vieira et al.,…”
BackgroundThe Effect of Central Vision Loss on Perception of Mutual Gaze
Sheldon, S. S., Quint, J., Hecht, H., & Bowers, A. R. (2014) · Optometry and Vision Science · doi:10.1097/opx.0000000000000314 · Cited by 7
The relevance to social interaction modulates bistable biological-motion perception
Han, Q.-L., Wang, Y., Jiang, Y., & Bao, M. (2021) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104584 · Cited by 6
“Closer interpersonal distance denotes a higher probability of stimulation in nearly all modalities (Lloyd, 2009; Sorokowska et al., 2017).”
BackgroundSmaller preferred interpersonal distance for joint versus parallel action
Schmitz, L., & Reader, A. T. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0285202 · Cited by 6
Action Spaces Representation in Social Contexts
Coello, Y. (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119362081.ch12 · Cited by 6
Silvestri, V., Grassi, M., & Nava, E. (2021) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-021-01590-7 · Cited by 5
“Other factors appear to influence the perception of interpersonal space, these being gender and age (Cléry et al., 2015; Iachini et al., 2016; Lloyd, 2009).”
BackgroundPaschalidou, S. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14020203 · Cited by 5
Human-robot spatial interaction in a hallway
Lauckner, M. (2016) · DepositOnce · doi:10.14279/depositonce-5084 · Cited by 5
Altered representation of peripersonal and interpersonal space in psychopathology
Lee, H.-S., Holt, D. J., & Park, S. (2024) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102509 · Cited by 8
Immorality backward, morality forward? Metaphorical morality in Chinese-English bilinguals
Yang, H., & Yang, N. (2024) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-024-01225-w · Cited by 3
“Past studies have demonstrated that individuals reduce interpersonal distance when they feel comfortable and friendly, and increase distance when feeling hostile or uncomfortable (Hayduk 1983; Lloyd 2009).”
Childhood maltreatment, sexual desire and sexual distress in couples: the role of touch aversion
Sansoucy, F., Kotiuga, J., Daspe, M., Bigras, N., & Vaillancourt‐Morel, M. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107460 · Cited by 7
A neuroimaging study of interpersonal distance in identical and fraternal twins
Rosén, J., Kastrati, G., Kuja‐Halkola, R., Larsson, H., & Åhs, F. (2022) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25864 · Cited by 2
“Agency or action potential of animate and inanimate objects has been suggested to regulate interpersonal space boundaries (Lloyd, 2009).”
BackgroundMusic as a Tool for Affiliative Bonding: A Second-Person Approach to Musical Engagement
Reybrouck, M. (2024) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti8090082 · Cited by 4
Hatzipanayioti, A., Walther, S., Gangl, N., Conring, F., Wüthrich, F., & Stegmayer, K. (2025) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-025-02999-x · Cited by 3
A Social Relations Model of Interpersonal Distance Preference
Meagher, B. R. (2025) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-025-00493-0 · Cited by 3
“It is therefore fundamental to the dynamics of social interaction in humans (Hall, 1966; Lloyd, 2009).”
Iachini, T., Frassinetti, F., Ruotolo, F., Sbordone, F. L., Ferrara, A., Arioli, M., Pazzaglia, F., Bosco, A., Candini, M., Lopez, A., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r7usv · Cited by 3
“Proxemics literature has shown that IPS can be modulated by several psychological and situational factors (for reviews Bell et al., 2005; Hayduk, 1983; Lloyd, 2009; Sommer, 2002).”
BackgroundConcern for privacy in relation to age during physical examination of children: an exploratory study
HANSSON, M. G., Kihlbom, U., Tuvemo, T., & Rodriguez, A. (2009) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01332.x · Cited by 2
“nature of the situation is also pivotal and allows for contact that would otherwise not be possible (4).”
BackgroundSocial Context and Tool Use Can Modulate Interpersonal Comfort Space
Ferrara, A., Rapuano, M., & Ruggiero, G. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12041647 · Cited by 2
“Research has questioned whether there is a relationship between the space to act on objects and the space to interact with conspecifics (see [4,5]).”
BackgroundInfluentialElectrocardiographic activity depends on the relative position between intimate persons
Mukai, K., Isomura, T., Onagawa, R., & Watanabe, K. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-54439-5 · Cited by 2
Multiple sclerosis and self-alienation: a study based on self and others representations
Ziaie, L., Mazaheri, M. A., Zabihzadeh, A., Etemadifar, M., Shokri, O., & Contrada, R. J. (2024) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-024-02264-w · Cited by 2
“The emotion created when facing another [44], the perception of threat [45], and shame [58] in close proximity to others are critical factors in regulating interpersonal distance.”
From social effort to social behavior: An integrated neural model for social motivation
Kanterman, A., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106170 · Cited by 4
Morrissey, E. C., Harney, O., Hogan, M., Murphy, P. J., O’Grady, L., Byrne, M., Casey, M., Duane, S., Durand, H., Hayes, P., et al. (2024) · Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/21642850.2024.2404038 · Cited by 3
“For example, the identification of the critical role of enhancing the more intangible ‘space between us’ factors (Lloyd, 2009) that might be variously referred to as therapeutic alliance (Elvins & Green, 2008) or patient-provider relationship (Drossman & Ruddy, 2020) meant that reducing the…”
Liu, S., Zhou, M., & Li, Y. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.09.021 · Cited by 2
Correction: I-Space: The Effects of Emotional Valence and Source of Music on Interpersonal Distance
Tajadura‐Jiménez, A., Pantelidou, G., Rebacz, P., Västfjäll, D., & Manos Tsakiris, A. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/annotation/6a8a7614-6c5d-4d43-ba98-3259c1271493 · Cited by 2
Exploring Proxemics in Volumetric Video vs. Face-to-Face through Charades
Ni, M., Arboleda, S. A., & Raake, A. (2025) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3706599.3719847 · Cited by 1
“These nonverbal behaviors account for approximately 60% of human interaction [7, 29] and define the dynamics of social interactions [25].”
Assessing airborne pathogen exposure in hospital wards using a distance-based modeling technique
Tsang, T.-W., Wong, L. T., & Mui, K. W. (2025) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.179563 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Lloyd, D. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Manchester (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Lloyd, Donna M.
- ORCID
- Lloyd, Donna M.
- Venue
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2009-03
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 297-304
- ISSN
- 0149-7634 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2104761373
- Cited by
- 128
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 1.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Keywords
- personal space, social space, spatial coding, prosocial behavior, social dysfunction, salience, neurophilosophy
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Models, Psychological, Neurons, Personal Space, Social Behavior, Spatial Behavior
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