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Functional connectivity in the developing brain: A longitudinal study from 4 to 9months of age
Open accessAbstract
We characterize the development of intrinsic connectivity networks (ICNs) from 4 to 9months of age with resting state magnetic resonance imaging performed on sleeping infants without sedative medication. Data is analyzed with independent component analysis (ICA). Using both low (30 components) and high (100 components) ICA model order decompositions, we find that the functional network connectivity (FNC) map is largely similar at both 4 and 9months. However at 9months the connectivity strength decreases within local networks and increases between more distant networks. The connectivity within the default-mode network, which contains both local and more distant nodes, also increases in strength with age. The low frequency power spectrum increases with age only in the posterior cingulate cortex and posterior default mode network. These findings are consistent with a general developmental pattern of increasing longer distance functional connectivity over the first year of life and raise questions regarding the developmental importance of the posterior cingulate at this age.
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“Over the course of the first two years of life, these regions undergo a precise evolution to gradually bring the network ‘online’ (Damaraju et al., 2014; Gao et al., 2013; Gao et al., 2009).”
From Development of large-scale functional networks from birth to adulthood: A guide to the neuroimaging literature (2017) · cites this paper as Damaraju et al., 2014
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“In neonates and very young infants, these individual compartments demonstrate locally correlated activity, but fail to synchronize into a coherent network (Damaraju et al., 2014; Fransson et al., 2007; Gao et al., 2009; Smyser et al., 2010; Wylie et al., 2014).”
From Development of large-scale functional networks from birth to adulthood: A guide to the neuroimaging literature (2017) · cites this paper as Damaraju et al., 2014
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
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Developmental connectomics from infancy through early childhood
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“At this stage, the DMN is still in the process of rapid development (Damaraju et al., 2014; Gao et al., 2016).”
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“, frontal to visual and frontal to sensorimotor regions), with the exception of the posterior cingulate cortex which maintains a high level of intra-network connectivity profile (Damaraju et al., 2014).”
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Longitudinally consistent estimates of intrinsic functional networks
Zhao, Q., Kwon, D., Müller‐Oehring, E. M., Berre, A. L., Adolf Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., & Pohl, K. M. (2019) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24541 · Cited by 14
“Existing longitudinal studies have applied cross-sectional approaches to identify subject-specific IFNs; that is, IFNs are esti- mated independently for rs-fMRI of each visit (Damaraju et al., 2014; Gao, Alcauter, Smith, Gilmore, & Lin, 2015; Odish et al., 2015; van der Horn et al., 2017).”
BackgroundPredictive modeling of neurobehavioral state and trait variation across development
Sanchez–Alonso, S., & Aslin, R. Ν. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100855 · Cited by 13
“In these studies, the term ‘state’ refers to whole-brain stable FC configurations recurring across participants and time (Allen et al., 2014; Damaraju et al., 2014; Gonzalez-Castillo et al., 2015; Valsasina et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInhibitory control development from infancy to early childhood: A longitudinal fNIRS study
Fiske, A., Mortimer, A., Collins-Jones, L. H., de Klerk, C. C. J. M., Gattas, S., Dvergsdal, H., Scerif, G., & Holmboe, K. (2025) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2025.101557 · Cited by 18
“A. Fiske et al. Whilst previous longitudinal research has examined resting state functional connectivity development in infancy (Damaraju et al., 2014), as well as the functional activation underpinning working memory in infancy (Reyes et al., 2020) and cognitive flexibility in early childhood…”
Torres, E. R., Tumey, T. A., Dean, D., Kassahun‐Yimer, W., Lopez-Lambert, E., & Hitchcock, M. (2020) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2020.103551 · Cited by 13
“Scan times were not reported in 38% of articles with success rates ranging from 43–100% x = 87.4% (Bartha et al., 2007; Damaraju et al., 2014; Golan et al., 2011; Groves et al., 2012; Inder et al., 2005; Knickmeyer et al., 2008; Lin et al., 2008; Maas et al., 2004; McNally et al., 1997; Miller et…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Timing of Brain Maturation, Early Experience, and the Human Social Niche
Finlay, B. L., & Uchiyama, R. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820584-6.00034-9 · Cited by 11
Li, X., Chen, H., Hu, Y., Larsen, R. J., Sutton, B. P., McElwain, N. L., & Gao, W. (2023) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhad117 · Cited by 14
Spatial development of brain networks during the first six postnatal months
Seraji, M., Shultz, S., Li, Q., Fu, Z., Calhoun, V. D., & Iraji, A. (2025) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-025-08913-z · Cited by 17
“Similarly, Damaraju et al. found increasing coherence within the posterior DMN between 4 and 9 months, and noted that executive and frontoparietal networks showed more prolonged maturation 66 .”
Self-citationA 1-Tesla MRI system for dedicated brain imaging in the neonatal intensive care unit
Berson, E. R., Mozayan, A., Peterec, S. M., Taylor, S. N., Bamford, N. S., Ment, L. R., Rowe, E., Lisse, S., Ehrlich, L., Silva, C. T., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1132173 · Cited by 11
“Over the past two decades, MRI has been increasingly used in neonates and infants to elucidate patterns of brain development (Damaraju et al., 2014; Kline et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2021) and to quickly and accurately diagnose suspected intraparenchymal pathologies, such as ischemia and hemorrhage (Reddy, 2022).”
BackgroundDevelopmental implications of children’s brain networks and learning
Chan, J. S. Y., Wang, Y., Yan, J. H., & Chen, H. (2016) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro-2016-0007 · Cited by 12
“In addition, functional network segregation and integration proceed from childhood to adulthood, which is characterized by an increase in distant networks and a decrease in local networks (Fair et al., 2009; Vogel et al., 2010; Damaraju et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSensorimotor contingencies in congenital hearing loss: The critical first nine months
Kral, A., Kishon‐Rabin, L., O’Donoghue, G. M., & Romeo, R. R. (2025) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2025.109401 · Cited by 9
Mueller, I., Rodriguez, R. X., Pini, N., Holland, C. M., Ababio, R., Inala, S., Delapenha, K., Mahmoodi, V., Khaitova, M., Hao, X., et al. (2025) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2025.101525 · Cited by 6
Frontoparietal network and neuropsychological measures in typically developing children
Solis, I., Janowich, J., Candelaria‐Cook, F. T., Collishaw, W., Wang, Y., Wilson, T. W., Calhoun, V. D., Ciesielski, K. T. R., & Stephen, J. M. (2021) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107914 · Cited by 6
Self-citationBulgarelli, C., Blasi, A., McCann, S., Milosavljevic, B., Ghillia, G., Mbye, E., Touray, E., Fadera, T., Acolatse, L., Moore, S. E., et al. (2026) · eLife · doi:10.1101/2024.01.02.573930 · Cited by 10
“Additionally, we observed long-range right frontal-posterior FC increased with age and exhibited positive correlations at 24 months, as consistent with previous infant studies (29, 31).”
Rashid, B., Arbabshirani, M. R., Damaraju, E., Millar, R., Cetin, M. S., Pearlson, G. D., & Calhoun, V. D. (2015) · IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI) · doi:10.1109/isbi.2015.7163861 · Cited by 6
“In addition, we expected some connectivity measures to be better captured in a static model and others in a dynamic model [12].”
BackgroundSelf-citationAltered Salience Network Connectivity in 6-Week-Old Infants at Risk for AutismPreprint
Tsang, T., Green, S. A., Liu, J., Lawrence, K. E., Jeste, S., Bookheimer, S. Y., & Dapretto, M. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.10.27.466195 · Cited by 6
Bulgarelli, C., Blasi, A., McCann, S., Milosavljevic, B., Ghillia, G., Mbye, E., Touray, E., Fadera, T., Acolatse, L., Moore, S. E., et al. (2025) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.94194.2 · Cited by 6
Developmental human brain connectome from fetal stage to early childhood
Wu, W., Huang, H., Zhu, T., Tan, S., & Ouyang, M. (2026) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2026.101704 · Cited by 6
“…connectivity develops first, followed by the enhancement of long-range functional connectivity and its continued maturation throughout childhood (Cao et al., 2017a; Damaraju et al., 2014b; Fair et al., 2009; Jakab et al., 2014; Smyser et al., 2010; Thomason et al., 2014; Thomason et al., 2015).”
InfluentialBurr, S. D. L., Pirazzoli, L., Dopierała, A., Bejjanki, V. R., Nelson, C. A., & Emberson, L. L. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001531 · Cited by 7
“In particular, while there was evidence for the expected increase in long-range connectivity, there was no expected decrease in short-range connectivity (Damaraju et al., 2014).”
BackgroundTo, X. V., Vegh, V., & Nasrallah, F. A. (2021) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2021.109411 · Cited by 5
Born Connected: The Early Emergence of Adult-Like Multi-Scale Brain Networks in InfancyPreprint
Bajracharya, P., Fu, Z., Mirzaeian, S., Calhoun, V. D., Shultz, S., & Iraji, A. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.11.27.625681 · Cited by 8
“Prior infant studies have identified several ICNs 7–9, 11, 12, 32– 34 , yet only a subset Our findings offer critical insights into neurodevelopment, particularly the early formation of brain network architecture.”
Self-citationCOVID-19 Pandemic–Related Prenatal Distress and Infant Functional Brain Development
Jaffer, A., Manning, K. Y., Giesbrecht, G. F., Tomfohr‐Madsen, L. M., & Lebel, C. A. (2024) · JAACAP Open · doi:10.1016/j.jaacop.2024.09.008 · Cited by 4
“12 Even across this smaller age range (2 months), changes were apparent in these 2 networks.”
InfluentialMucignat‐Caretta, C., & Soravia, G. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1266766 · Cited by 5
“Also, connections between areas mature with time: for example, at 9 months the connections over longer distance are emerging, while local network connectivity decreases (Damaraju et al., 2014).”
BackgroundSantamaria, L., Georgieva, S., Noreika, V., Canales‐Johnson, A., & Leong, V. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.08.18.670844 · Cited by 2
“…from infancy to adulthood is not yet well known, functional connectivity measures in infancy show increased complexity and e ffi ciency (Boersma et al., 2011; Cao et al., 2016; Damaraju et al., 2014) and a significant reorganisation in adolescence (Gabard-Durnam et al., 2014; Uhlhaas et al., 2009).”
Wigley, I. L. C. M., Lautarescu, A., Vartiainen, E., Pulli, E. P., Hashempour, N., Merisaari, H., Bano, W., Luotonen, S., Jolly, A., Suuronen, I., et al. (2026) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-025-04726-2 · Cited by 2
“78 Fourth, motion during scanning was a signi fi cant covariate in our analyses, and although we adjusted for it statistically, its in fl uence represents a potential limitation.”
Zhao, Z., Li, R., Wu, Y., Li, M., & Wu, D. (2024) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101496 · Cited by 3
“However, it remains inconsistent that the FNC increases (Gao et al., 2015) or decreases (Damaraju et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2017) with age during early brain development in previous reports.”
Neuroimaging of early brain development and the consequences of preterm birth
Lean, R. E., Neil, J. J., & Smyser, C. D. (2021) · Advances in magnetic resonance technology and applications · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816633-8.00022-3 · Cited by 2
Ventura, S., Ryan, M. A., Mathieson, S., Livingstone, V., O’Toole, J. M., & Boylan, G. B. (2025) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2025.114728 · Cited by 1
Seraji, M., Shultz, S., Li, Q., Fu, Z., Iraji, A., & Calhoun, V. D. (2025) · Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC) · doi:10.1109/embc58623.2025.11253059 · Cited by 2
Self-citationBenchmarking functional brain network organization in childhood and its similarity to adults
Ali, S. A., Demeter, D. V., Baim, A. R., Koithan, E. M., Feigelis, M., Zreik, S., Ahern, J., Chang, S. E., Park, S., Gordon, E. M., et al. (2026) · Frontiers in Neuroimaging · doi:10.3389/fnimg.2026.1818662 · Cited by 1
“…networks emerge from localized patterns of connectivity that gradually integrate into distributed systems supporting flexible cognition (Fransson et al., 2007; Gao et al., 2009; Smyser et al., 2010; Damaraju et al., 2014; Wylie et al., 2014; De Asis-Cruz et al., 2015; Van Den Heuvel et al., 2015).”
Blanco, B., Molnar, M. T., Carreiras, M., Collins-Jones, L. H., Vidal-Rosas, E. E., Cooper, R. J., & Caballero‐Gaudes, C. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.04.10.035469 · Cited by 1
Bulgarelli, C., Blasi, A., McCann, S., Milosavljevic, B., Ghillia, G., Mbye, E., Touray, E., Fadera, T., Acolatse, L., Moore, S. E., et al. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.94194 · Cited by 4
“Additionally, we observed long-range right frontal-posterior FC increased with age and exhibited positive correlations at 24 months, as consistent with previous infant studies ( Damaraju et al., 2014 ; Bulgarelli et al., 2020b ).”
The Mind Research Network - Mental Illness Neuroscience Discovery Grant
Roberts, J., & Calhoun, V. D. (2013) · OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) · doi:10.2172/1111123
Self-citationMcCormick, C. (2014) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Lifespan changes in brain rhythms and networks
Eggermont, J. J. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-819818-6.00013-3
The Timing of Brain Maturation, Early Experience and the Human Social NichePreprint
Uchiyama, R., & Finlay, B. L. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r9mce
Kaur, K. K. (2022) · Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology Research · doi:10.31579/2693-7247/084
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Fiske, A., & Emberson, L. L. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/h5znx
Maternal and Fetal Conditions With Consequences for the Fetal Brain
du Plessis, A. J., & Volpe, J. J. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-10513-5.00011-5
Trajectories of functional connectivity in brain maturation
Liang, X., Sun, L., Cao, M., & Yong He, A. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-19099-5.00009-x
Critical states in sleep EEG: developmental evolution across 3192 clinical children aged 0-18 years
Sun, H., Wan, W., Cui, X., & Peng, C. (2025) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaf324
Metadata
- Authors
- Damaraju, E., Caprihan, A., Lowe, J. R., Allen, E. A., Calhoun, V. D., & Phillips, J. P.
- Affiliations
- Mind Research Network (US)
- University of New Mexico (US)
- Corresponding author
- Damaraju, E.
- Venue
- NeuroImage
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-01
- Volume
- 84
- Pages
- 169-180
- ISSN
- 1053-8119 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3881974
- OpenAlex
- W1967832316
- Cited by
- 103
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 4
- FWCI
- 4.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- NeuroImage (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Delle Foundation
- NIH (R01-EB000840)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced Neuroimaging Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- functional connectivity, brain development, infants, resting-state networks, resting-state fMRI, default mode network, posterior cingulate cortex, longitudinal development
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Brain, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Nerve Net, Neural Pathways, Neuronal Plasticity, Sensitivity and Specificity, Sleep, Reproducibility of Results, Connectome
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