The DOI matches its Crossref record; 17 of the 17 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics
Open accessAbstract
The current study investigated the relationship between bilingual language proficiency and onset of probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) in 44 Spanish-English bilinguals at the UCSD Alzheimer's Disease Research Center. Degree of bilingualism along a continuum was measured using Boston Naming Test (BNT) scores in each language. Higher degrees of bilingualism were associated with increasingly later age-of-diagnosis (and age of onset of symptoms), but this effect was driven by participants with low education level (a significant interaction between years of education and bilingualism) most of whom (73%) were also Spanish-dominant. Additionally, only objective measures (i.e., BNT scores), not self-reported degree of bilingualism, predicted age-of-diagnosis even though objective and self-reported measures were significantly correlated. These findings establish a specific connection between knowledge of two languages and delay of AD onset, and demonstrate that bilingual effects can be obscured by interactions between education and bilingualism, and by failure to obtain objective measures of bilingualism. More generally, these data support analogies between the effects of bilingualism and "cognitive reserve" and suggest an upper limit on the extent to which reserve can function to delay dementia.
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Cites
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Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia
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“Bialystok, Craik, and Freedman (2007) and Craik, Bialystok, and Freedman (2010, p. 1727), recruited patients from a memory clinic in Toronto, Canada comparing people who “. . .spent the majority of life, at least from early adulthood, regularly using at least two languages” to monolinguals, and…”
BackgroundMethodBrain reserve and dementia: a systematic review
VALENZUELA, M. J., & SACHDEV, P. (2006) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291705006264 · Cited by 932
On the bilingual advantage in conflict processing: Now you see it, now you don’t
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Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Green, D. W., & Gollan, T. H. (2009) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100610387084 · Cited by 753
Lost in Translation: Methodological Considerations in Cross-Cultural Research
Peña, E. D. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01064.x · Cited by 620
Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease
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Brain reserve and cognitive decline: a non-parametric systematic review
Valenzuela, M., & Sachdev, P. S. (2006) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291706007744 · Cited by 377 · cited 1×
“…Costa-Faidella, & Sebastián-Gallés, 2009; for review see Bialystok, Craik, Green, & Gollan, 2009), imply a beneficial effect of bilingualism on cognitive reserve (Stern, 2009; Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006a, 2006b), and raise interesting questions regarding mechanisms underlying these effects.”
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Wray, A. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190917807.002.0003
Wray, A. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190917807.002.0005
Wray, A. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190917807.002.0007
Wray, A. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190917807.002.0008
Wray, A. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190917807.002.0009
Wray, A. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190917807.002.0006
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Zhu, W., Li, X., Li, X., Wang, H., Li, M., Gao, Z., Wu, X., Tian, Y., Zhou, S., Wang, K., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16909725
Zhu, W., Li, X., Li, X., Wang, H., Li, M., Gao, Z., Wu, X., Tian, Y., Zhou, S., Wang, K., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16909728
Zhu, W., Li, X., Li, X., Wang, H., Li, M., Gao, Z., Wu, X., Tian, Y., Zhou, S., Wang, K., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16909722
Neuroimaging of Cognitive Reserve in Bilinguals
Gallo, F., & Abutalebi, J. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009202336.004
Neuroimaging Studies of Brain and Language
Andrews, E., & Kiran, S. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009202336.003
Kim, H., & Sung, J. (2025) · Communication Sciences & Disorders · doi:10.12963/csd.250132
“관찰되었다 (Blumenfeld & Mari-an, 2013; Coulter & Phillips, 2024; Gollan, Salmon, Montoya, & Galasko, 2011; Lamar et al., 2023; Torres et al., 2022).”
Strangmann, I. M., Nichols, E. L., Meijer, E., Khobragade, P. Y., Snider, M., Narayanan, S., Lee, J., & Rentería, M. A. (2026) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Behavior & Socioeconomics of Aging · doi:10.1002/bsa3.70087
Maurice, O. R., Jones, C., Pliatsikas, C., Sheehan, A., & Harris, C. B. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-11186040/v1
Metadata
- Authors
- Gollan, T. H., Salmon, D. P., Montoya, R. I., & Galasko, D. R.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gollan, Tamar H.
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-12
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 14
- Pages
- 3826-3830
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3223277
- OpenAlex
- W2022236503
- Cited by
- 218
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 6.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (P50AG005131, P50-AG05131)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R01DC011492)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD050287)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
- Keywords
- bilingualism, Alzheimer's disease, age at diagnosis, Spanish-English bilinguals, educational attainment, cognitive reserve, Boston Naming Test, dementia onset, Hispanic older adults
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Alzheimer Disease, Educational Status, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Names, Neuropsychological Tests, Age of Onset, Multilingualism
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