Effects of hormonal contraceptives on mental rotation and verbal fluency
Abstract
Cognitive abilities, such as verbal fluency and mental rotation, are most sensitive to changes in sex steroids but poorly studied in the context of hormonal contraceptive usage. Therefore, we investigated the performance of mental rotation and verbal fluency in young (21.5±1.8 years) healthy oral contraceptive (OC) users (23 women) and non-users (20 women) during the follicular, ovulatory and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. Salivary 17β-estradiol, progesterone and testosterone levels were assayed to evaluate hormonal differences between groups and the phases of the menstrual cycle. To assess the effects of progestins having androgenic/anti-androgenic properties, OC users were subdivided into the third and new generation OC users. In addition, positive and negative affects as factors possibly affecting cognitive performance were evaluated. Salivary 17β-estradiol and progesterone levels were significantly lower in hormonal contraception users. Level of salivary testosterone was slightly lower in the OC users group with significant difference only during ovulatory phase. Naturally cycling women performed better on verbal fluency task as compared to OC users. Subjects who used the third generation (androgenic) OCs generated significantly fewer words as compared to new generation (anti-androgenic) OC users and non-users. The third generation OC users demonstrated significantly longer RT in MRT task as compared to non-users. The MRT, verbal fluency and mood parameters did not…
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Griksiene and Ruksenas (2011) found verbal and spatial performance differences between women using different types of hormonal birth control.
“Griksiene and Ruksenas (2011) found verbal and spatial performance differences between women using different types of hormonal birth control”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Griksiene and Ruksenas (2011)
Several papers detail that oral contraceptive use and type influences CAT performance on verbal and spatial tasks.
“several papers detail oral contraceptive use and type influences CAT performance on verbal and spatial task (Griksiene & Ruksenas, 2011;Hampson et al., 2022)”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Griksiene & Ruksenas, 2011
Cites
Estrogen and cognitive functioning in women
Sherwin, B. B. (2003) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/er.2001-0016 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Schöning, S., Engelien, A., Kugel, H., Schäfer, S., Schiffbauer, H., Zwitserlood, P., Pletziger, E., Beizai, P., Kersting, A., Ohrmann, P., et al. (2007) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.06.011 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Salivary testosterone does not predict mental rotation performance in men or women
Puts, D. A., Cárdenas, R. A., Bailey, D. H., Burriss, R. P., Jordan, C. L., & Breedlove, S. M. (2010) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.03.005 · Cited by 89 · cited 2× · see citing works
“However, a recently presented extensive study (160 women and 177 men) demonstrated no relationship between testosterone concentration and spatial performance in young men and women (Puts et al., 2010).”
Background
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The new science of cognitive sex differences
Miller, D. I., & Halpern, D. F. (2014) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2013.10.011 · Cited by 610 · see citing works
Sex differences in cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease
Li, R., & Singh, M. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.01.002 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
“On the other hand, women in high estradiol phases of the menstrual cycle have better verbal fluency (femaletype cognition) than those in low estradiol phases, and naturally cycling women have better verbal fluency than women using oral contraceptives (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011; Hampson, 1990).”
BackgroundToffoletto, S., Lanzenberger, R., Gingnell, M., Sundström-Poromaa, I., & Comasco, E. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.07.025 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Sundström Poromaa, I., & Gingnell, M. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00380 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
“Again, a number of methodological concerns have been identified in the studies; several studies suffer from low power (Hausmann et al., 2000; Solis-Ortiz and Corsi-Cabrera, 2008), two studies report on a visuospatial composite score (Hampson, 1990; Gordon and Lee, 1993), and one study involved repeated, daily testings…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPetersen, N., Kilpatrick, L. A., Goharzad, A., & Cahill, L. F. (2013) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.12.016 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
“tasks differ in women using oral contraceptives (OCs; Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011), as does the pattern of memory retention for recall of an emotional story (Nielsen et al.”
Mechanisms of estradiol in fear circuitry: implications for sex differences in psychopathology
Cover, K. K., Maeng, L. Y., Lebrón‐Milad, K., & Milad, M. R. (2014) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2014.67 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Sex Hormones and Cognition: Neuroendocrine Influences on Memory and Learning
Hamson, D. K., Roes, M., & Galea, L. (2016) · Comprehensive Physiology · doi:10.1002/j.2040-4603.2016.tb00710.x · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Gurvich, C., Hoy, K., Thomas, N., & Kulkarni, J. (2018) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci8090163 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“Specifically, improvements in mental rotation have been associated with androgenic pill types and impairments associated with antiandrogenic pill types [49,50].”
BackgroundExecutive functions predict verbal fluency scores in healthy participants
Amunts, J., Camilleri, J., Eickhoff, S., Heim, S., & Weis, S. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-65525-9 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Cognition, The Menstrual Cycle, and Premenstrual Disorders: A Review
Le, J., Thomas, N., & Gurvich, C. (2020) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci10040198 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
“Two of the six studies examining verbal fluency showed improved performance in periods of high estradiol [37,50], such as the mid-luteal phase or the late follicular phase, while the remaining studies showed no effect of phase [41,42,44,46].”
BackgroundResultSex differences in social cognition: the case of face processing
Proverbio, A. M. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.23817 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Indeed, women using oral contraceptives have been shown to differ from nonpill users in memory (Mordecai et al., 2008), mental rotation (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011), and affective memory tasks (Nielsen et al., 2011, 2014).”
BackgroundA systematic review of the impact of oral contraceptives on cognition.
Warren, A. M., Gurvich, C., Worsley, R., & Kulkarni, J. (2014) · Contraception · doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2014.03.015 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“Wharton [30] found that visuospatial ability (a male-favouring domain) is enhanced by androgenic OCs but impaired by anti-androgenic OCs (such as those containing drospirenone), whilst Griksiene [36] found verbal fluency (a female-favouring area) was impaired by androgenic formulations but less so by antiandrogenic OC…”
BackgroundPreciados, M., Yoo, C., & Roy, D. (2016) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms17122086 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“Oral contraceptives (OC) containing specifically ethinyl estradiol has been shown to reduce the amount of available endogenous estrogen in the body [38].”
BackgroundInfluentialBeltz, A., & Moser, J. (2020) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.14255 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Testosterone and its metabolites--modulators of brain functions.
Durdiaková, J., Ostatníková, D., & Celec, P. (2011) · Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis · doi:10.55782/ane-2011-1863 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Progesterone and human cognition
Henderson, V. (2018) · Climacteric · doi:10.1080/13697137.2018.1476484 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Oral contraceptives and cognition: A role for ethinyl estradiol.
Beltz, A., Hampson, E., & Berenbaum, S. (2015) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.06.012 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Gogos, A. (2013) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.02.001 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“dependent on the type of progestin used in the OC (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011), whereby”
Amygdala reactivity to negative stimuli is influenced by oral contraceptive use.
Petersen, N., & Cahill, L. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsv010 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Women using OCs with androgenic progestins performed significantly worse on a test of verbal fluency compared with women using OCs with anti-androgenic progestins, and also had longer reaction times on a test of mental rotation compared with naturally cycling women (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011).”
BackgroundSimone, J.-M., Bogue, E. A., Bhatti, D. L., Day, L., Farr, N., Grossman, A. M., & Holmes, P. (2015) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.08.015 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The Menstrual Cycle Influences Emotion but Has Limited Effect on Cognitive Function.
Sundström-Poromaa, I. (2018) · Vitamins and hormones · doi:10.1016/bs.vh.2018.01.016 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Estradiol and mental rotation: relation to dimensionality, difficulty, or angular disparity?
Hampson, E., Levy-Cooperman, N., & Korman, J. M. (2014) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.12.016 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The brain as a target of hormonal contraceptives: evidence from animal studies.
Porcu, P., Serra, M., & Concas, A. (2019) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2019.100799 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Gogos, A., Wu, Y., Williams, A. S., & Byrne, L. (2014) · Neurochemical Research · doi:10.1007/s11064-014-1444-6 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“generation (anti-androgenic) OC users and also to non-users [44].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSeiger, R., Hahn, A., Hummer, A., Kranz, G., Ganger, S., Woletz, M., Kraus, C., Sladky, R., Kautzky, A., Kasper, S., et al. (2016) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.09.028 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Beltz, A., & Berenbaum, S. (2013) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.04.002 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Leeners, B., Kruger, T. H., Geraedts, K., Tronci, E., Mancini, T., Ille, F., Egli, M., Röblitz, S., Saleh, L., Spanaus, K., et al. (2017) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00120 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“These results conflict with some crosssectional findings (e.g., Hampson and Morley, 2013), but are in accord with some longitudinal observational studies in menstruating women (e.g., Mordecai et al., 2008; Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011).”
MethodResultInfluentialApplying a Women’s Health Lens to the Study of the Aging Brain
Taylor, C. M., Pritschet, L., Yu, S., & Jacobs, E. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00224 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
The other side of progestins: effects in the brain.
Giatti, S., Melcangi, R., & Pesaresi, M. (2016) · Journal of Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/jme-16-0061 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“COC users outperform in associative learning (Beck et al. 2008, Holloway et al. 2011), and better results were obtained also in verbal fluency and mental rotation (Wharton et al. 2008, Griksiene & Ruksenas 2011) when compared with nonusers.”
Does the use of hormonal contraceptives affect the mental rotation performance?
Griksiene, R., Monciunskaite, R., Arnatkeviciute, A., & Ruksenas, O. (2018) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.03.004 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Although some previous studies demonstrated differences between OC users and naturally cycling (NC) women (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011; Wharton et al., 2008), others found no such differences (Islam et al., 2008; Rosenberg and Park, 2002).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationvan Hemmen, J., Veltman, D., Hoekzema, E., Cohen-Kettenis, P., Dessens, A., & Bakker, J. (2016) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu280 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“2007; Kozaki andYasukouchi 2008); however, other studies have not found these activational effects (e.g., Peters et al. 1995; Halari et al. 2005; Griksiene and Ruksenas 2011).”
BackgroundHampson, E. (2022) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101040 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Bernal, A., & Paolieri, D. (2021) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113593 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Spatial and response navigation task: (+) participants tested in EFP predominantl y used a response strategy (+) participants tested in the mid/late luteal phase predominantl y used a spatial strategy (-) participants tested in the OP predominantl y used a response strategy Rey auditory verbal learning test: (+) bette…”
InfluentialLittle, A. (2013) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.07.009 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Some studies have also demonstrated effects of oral contractive on mental rotation abilities, comparing oral contraceptive users and non-users and demonstrating that mental rotation reaction times were longer in users than non-users (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011).”
BackgroundSex difference or hormonal difference in mental rotation? The influence of ovarian milieu.
Peragine, D., Simeon-Spezzaferro, C., Brown, A., Gervais, N. J., Hampson, E., & Einstein, G. (2019) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.104488 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Sex differences in cognition and aging and the influence of sex hormones.
Gurvich, C., Thomas, N., & Kulkarni, J. (2020) · Handbook of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-64123-6.00008-4 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Effects of Female Reproductive Hormones on Sports Performance
Lebrun, C. M., Joyce, S., & Constantini, N. (2013) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-62703-314-5_16 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Sex Hormones and Processing of Facial Expressions of Emotion: A Systematic Literature Review
Osório, F., Cassis, J. M. D. P., de Sousa, J. P. M., Poli-Neto, O., & Martin-Santos, R. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00529 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“In addition, investigations have shown alterations in mood and cognitive performance in women taking oral contraceptives (Mordecai et al., 2008; Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011; Poromaa and Segebladh, 2012).”
BackgroundNowak, N. T., Diamond, M., Land, S., & Moffat, S. (2014) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.12.003 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“, 1995) and have been observed to impact spatial performance (for review, see Hampson, 2008; Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011).”
BackgroundSex effects on spatial learning but not on spatial memory retrieval in healthy young adults.
Piber, D., Nowacki, J., Mueller, S., Wingenfeld, K., & Otte, C. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.08.034 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the intake of oral contraceptives [31, 32], as well as measured levels of sex hormones have shown to play a role in spatial memory performance [16, 19, 33-35].”
Cui, J., Jothishankar, B., He, P., Staufenbiel, M., Shen, Y., & Li, R.-N. (2013) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-013-8503-x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Nulliparous females are more likely to take birth control pills as contraceptives and these pills contain mixed sex hormones that can impact verbal and spatial abilities [30, 31].”
Gurvich, C., Warren, A. M., Worsley, R., Hudaib, A.-R., Thomas, N., & Kulkarni, J. (2020) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci10040194 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“The observation of improved visuospatial performance in users of OCs containing androgenic progestins throughout the cycle confirms and expands previous studies [36,37].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Specificities of Elite Female Athletes: A Multidisciplinary Approach
Castanier, C., Bougault, V., Teulier, C., Jaffré, C., Schiano-Lomoriello, S., Vibarel-Rebot, N., Villemain, A., Rieth, N., Scanff, C. L., Buisson, C., et al. (2021) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11070622 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Beltz, A. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101037 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Sex differences in spatial memory.
Chen, W., Liu, B., Li, X.-L., Wang, P.-Y., & Wang, B. (2020) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.06.016 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Bradshaw, H. K., Mengelkoch, S., & Hill, S. (2019) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104652 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Others have found that, compared to naturally-cycling women, women taking HCs exhibit diminished performance on a relatively complex mental rotation task (Griksiene et al., 2018; Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRegulation of cognitive function by androgens and estrogens
Hampson, E. (2018) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.03.002 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Misiura, M. B., Butts, B., Hammerschlag, B., Munkombwe, C., Bird, A., Fyffe, M., Hemphill, A., Dotson, V. M., & Wharton, W. (2023) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-023-01408-x · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Oral contraceptives and cognition: a systematic review.
Gurvich, C., Nicholls, I., Lavale, A., & Kulkarni, J. (2022) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101052 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Brain and Behavioral Development
Beltz, A. M., Blakemore, J. E., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2013) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-397267-5.00064-9 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Estradiol effects on spatial memory in women
Patel, S. A., Frick, K. M., NEWHOUSE, P. A., & Astur, R. S. (2021) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113592 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Shirazi, T. N., Rosenfield, K. A., Cárdenas, R., Breedlove, S., & Puts, D. A. (2019) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104647 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Cognition across the Lifespan: Investigating Age, Sex, and Other Sociodemographic Influences
Nichols, E. S., Wild, C. J., Owen, A. M., & Soddu, A. (2021) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs11040051 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Differences in verbal processing have been less clear, with some suggesting that they are due to variability in instruction and strategy [20,21], and others suggesting a hormonal link [22,23].”
BackgroundModeling hormonal contraception in female rats: A framework for studies in behavioral neurobiology
Lacasse, J. M., Gomez‐Perales, E. L., & Brake, W. G. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101020 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Hormonal contraceptives, stress, and the brain: The critical need for animal models.
Tronson, N., & Schuh, K. M. (2022) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101035 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“When broken down by HC formulation, androgenic HCs were more likely to decrease verbal fluency than anti-androgenic progestins (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011).”
BackgroundWhat is there to know about the effects of progestins on the human brain and cognition?
Grikšienė, R., Monciunskaite, R., & Ruksenas, O. (2022) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101032 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationConsidering sex differences in the cognitive controls of feeding
Sample, C. H., & Davidson, T. (2017) · Physiology and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.11.023 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
40 Hz auditory steady-state response in females: When is it better to entrain?
Griškova-Bulanova, I., Grikšienė, R., Korostenskaja, M., & Ruksenas, O. (2014) · Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis · doi:10.55782/ane-2014-1975 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…concentrations during mid-luteal phase (mean 205.1, SD 134.7) was significantly higher (P=0.013) as compared to early follicular phase (mean 76.5, SD 15.1) and did not differ from the late follicular phase (mean 134.4, SD 64.7) (Celec et al. 2009, Griksiene and Ruksenas 2011, Mumford et al. 2012).”
ResultInfluentialSelf-citationHow hormonal contraceptives shape brain and behavior: A review of preclinical studies.
Concas, A., Serra, M., & Porcu, P. (2022) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101017 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Exploring the sex and gender correlates of cognitive sex differences.
Kheloui, S., Brouillard, A., Rossi, M., Marin, M.-F., Mendrek, A., Paquette, D., & Juster, R. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103452 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Mackay, K., Gonzalez, C., Zbinden-Foncea, H., & Peñailillo, L. E. (2019) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-019-04254-y · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Although the use of saliva collection is a valid alternative due to its non-invasive, simple and stress-free methodology (Lu et al. 1999; Liening et al. 2010; Gatti and De Palo 2011; Griksiene and Ruksenas 2011; Hayes et al. 2015), blood samples could have allowed a more precise assessment of specific hormones, and co…”
BackgroundBeltz, A., Loviska, A. M., Kelly, D. P., & Nielson, M. G. (2022) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2021.777911 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Hormonal Contraception and the Brain: Examining Cognition and Psychiatric Disorders
Laird, S., Ney, L., Felmingham, K., & Gogos, A. (2019) · Current Psychiatry Research and Reviews · doi:10.2174/1573400515666190521113841 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Hampson, E., Morley, E. E., Evans, K. L., & Fleury, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.888510 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Wharton et al (37) result showing lower accuracy on the MRT in Yasmin users (n = 7) was not replicated by Griksiene and Ruksenas (44), who found no differences between 3 (n = 10) and 4 generationOCs (n = 11) on a mental rotation test.”
ResultSex, age, and sex hormones affect recall of words in a directed forgetting paradigm
Kerschbaum, H., Hofbauer, I., Gföllner, A., Ebner, B., Bresgen, N., & Bäuml, K. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.23973 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“For example, whereas Maki and colleagues describe a positive correlation between estradiol and verbal fluency (Maki et al., 2002), Griksiene and Ruksenas did not find a correlation between estradiol and verbal fluency (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011).”
BackgroundQuaiser-Pohl, C., Jansen, P., Lehmann, J., & Kudielka, B. (2016) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.21333 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Morphologic alterations of the fear circuitry: the role of sex hormones and oral contraceptives
Brouillard, A., Davignon, L., Turcotte, A.-M., & Marin, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1228504 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Methods and considerations for the use of hormonal contraceptives in rat models of neurobehavior.
Hilz, E. N. (2022) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101011 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Conducting neuropsychological assessment with transgender individuals
Trittschuh, E., Parmenter, B., Clausell, E., Mariano, M., & Reger, M. (2018) · Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2018.1440632 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Many of the studies have focused on verbal and visuospatial tasks as these are often found to be the most sensitive to changes in sex hormone levels (for a review, see Griksiene & Ruksenas, 2011).”
BackgroundReproducible stability of verbal and spatial functions along the menstrual cycle
Pletzer, B., Bodenbach, H., Hoehn, M., Hajdari, L., Hausinger, T., Noachtar, I., & Beltz, A. (2024) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01789-9 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Sex and gender correlates of sexually polymorphic cognition
Cartier, L., Guérin, M., Saulnier, F., Cotocea, I., Mohammedi, A., Moussaoui, F., Kheloui, S., & Juster, R. (2024) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/s13293-023-00579-8 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Naturally cycling females show stronger performance on verbal fluency task than oral contraceptives users, who present lower estradiol and progesterone levels [81, 82].”
BackgroundScheuringer, A., Harris, T., & Pletzer, B. (2020) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2020.104814 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Bernal, A., Mateo-Martínez, R., & Paolieri, D. (2020) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104768 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Boi, L., Petralla, S., Monti, B., Talani, G., Sanna, E., Pisu, M., Calderisi, G., Maciocco, E., Serra, M., Concas, A., et al. (2022) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105218 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Noachtar, I., Hidalgo-Lopez, E., & Pletzer, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.885617 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Users of anti-androgenic OCs generated significantly more words in a verbal fluency task compared to users of androgenic OCs (50).”
BackgroundShirazi, T. N., Levenberg, K., Cunningham, H., Self, H., Dawood, K., Cárdenas, R., Ortiz, T. L., Carré, J. M., Breedlove, S., & Puts, D. A. (2020) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104886 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“, 2016), neither individual differences (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011; Puts et al., 2010; Shirazi et al., 2020; Wharton et al., 2008) nor intraindividual fluctuations (Griksiene et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialIt takes a neural village: Circuit-based approaches for estrogenic regulation of episodic memory
Schwabe, M., Taxier, L. R., & Frick, K. (2020) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2020.100860 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“, hormonal contraceptives, menopausal hormone therapy), and thus, appreciating how estrogens affect global brain function may provide insights into effects of these treatments on cognition (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011; Peragine et al., 2019).”
BackgroundSex Hormones and Cognitive Functions: Current Data
Bulgakova, S., & Romanchuk, N. (2020) · Bulletin of Science and Practice · doi:10.33619/2414-2948/52/09 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Progesterone and Mental Rotation Task: Is There Any Effect?
Noreika, D., Griskova-Bulanova, I., Alaburda, A., Baranauskas, M., & Grikšienė, R. (2014) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2014/741758 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“However, in our recent study we demonstrated that performance of MRT in hormonal contraceptive users depends on the characteristics of synthetic progestins in contraceptive pills [24].”
BackgroundResultKowalczyk, M., Kornacka, M., Wisiecka, K., Młyniec, A., Redeł, A., Szwykowska-Ziemniak, M., & Krejtz, I. (2023) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000514 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Davignon, L., Brouillard, A., Juster, R., & Marin, M.-F. (2023) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2023.105454 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…comparing OC users (regardless of specific OC formulations) to NC women have reported no significant difference in their 3D MRT performance (Beltz et al., 2015; Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011; Jensen et al., 2023; Moody, 1997; Mordecai et al., 2008; Rosenberg and Park, 2002; Wharton et al., 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialJensen, A., Theriault, K. S., Yılmaz, E., Pon, E., & Davidson, P. (2023) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107720 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Sex, menstrual cycle, and hormonal contraceptives influences on global-local processing.
Marful, A., Paolieri, D., & Bernal, A. (2021) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105430 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“In this context, previous studies examining spatial ability have observed a behavior-modulating role of the ethinyl estradiol (Beltz et al., 2015), and of the androgenicity of the synthetic progestins contained in the HC (Griksiene and Ruksenas, 2011; Wharton et al., 2008).”
BackgroundNwakanma, A., Ekanem, T., Eluwa, M., Elemuo, C., & Ekong, M. (2021) · Acta Medica Bulgarica · doi:10.2478/amb-2021-0024 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
An evaluation of visuospatial skills using hands-on tasks
Ramirez, D. E. A., Blinch, J., & Gonzalez, C. L. R. (2020) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-020-05894-9 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Vocal Range in the Speech of Users of Low-Dose Oral Contraceptives.
Meurer, E. M., Moura, A. D., Rechenberg, L., Corleta, H. V. E., & Capp, E. (2017) · Journal of Voice · doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2016.09.027 · Cited by 7
“OC use has also been associated with vocal stability,(27,28) changes in verbal fluency and memory, fine motor control, and speech perception, among other processes.(19) Pregnant women have shown reduced phonation time.”
BackgroundFlaherty, C., Kraft, J., Brothers, A., Harrison, M., Legro, R., Manni, A., Yang, C., & Simmons, Z. (2017) · Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Degeneration · doi:10.1080/21678421.2016.1249487 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Thus, oestrogen mitigation potentially results in relative preservation of executive and salience networks associated fluency and concept formation abilities (30,36).”
BackgroundAttentional Networks during the Menstrual Cycle
Cohen, Z. Z., Gotlieb, N., Erez, O., Wiznitzer, A., Arbel, O., Matas, D., Lee, K.-R., & Henik, A. (2019) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/717264 · Cited by 5
Moróte, J., Tabernero, Á., Álvarez-Ossorio, J. L., Ciria, J. P., Domínguez-Escrig, J., Vazquez, F., Angulo, J., López, F., Iglesia, R. D. L., Romero, J., et al. (2017) · Actas Urológicas Españolas · doi:10.1016/j.acuro.2017.04.007 · Cited by 4
Cognitive performance across the menstrual cycle
Barel, E., Krispil, M., & Yaari, I. (2019) · Journal of Psychology and Cognition · doi:10.35841/psychology-cognition.4.3.41-47 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Hormonal intrauterine device use is related to mental rotations but not verbal memory skills.
Yan, R., Portengen, C., Yang, T. A., Reece, G. A., Dunnum, Z., Hidalgo-Lopez, E., & Beltz, A. (2025) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2025.105804 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gaižauskaitė, R., Zelionkaitė, I., & Grikšienė, R. (2025) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2025.115520 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gravelsins, L., Zhao, S., & Einstein, G. (2023) · Frontiers in neuroendocrinology (Print) · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2023.101067 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Evidence for a robust, estradiol-associated sex difference in narrative-writing fluency
Schultheiss, O. C., Köllner, M. G., Busch, H., & Hofer, J. (2020) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000706 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…a profound suppressive effect on naturally occurring estradiol and (b) estrogens are sometimes contained in the contraceptives and may add to, or interact with, endogenous estradiol, influencing cognitive functions in complex ways (Beltz, Hampson, & Berenbaum, 2015; Griksiene & Ruksenas, 2011).”
Yeo, R., Ryman, S., Thompson, M., van den Heuvel, M. P., de Reus, M. D., Pommy, J. A., Seaman, B., & Jung, R. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.037 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Effects of Female Reproductive Hormones on Sports Performance
Lebrun, C. M., Joyce, S., & Constantini, N. (2020) · Contemporary Endocrinology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33376-8_16 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Ohlhauser, L., Kwan, H., Casey, H., MacDonald, S., & Gawryluk, J. R. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0334358 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“For example, contraceptives have been linked with higher performance on verbal and mental rotations tasks [47].”
Früh, D., Mendl-Heinisch, C., Bittner, N., Weis, S., & Caspers, S. (2025) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.70191 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…functions and brain features, leading to a less pronounced encoding of language abilities in connectivity data and a stronger association with these other factors (Amunts et al. 2020; Fedorenko and Thompson-Schill 2014; Griksiene and Ruksenas 2011; Guichet et al. 2024; Opdebeeck et al. 2016).”
Martin, D., Bargh, M., & Pennington, K. (2024) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-025-05733-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Griksiene and Ruksenas (2011) showed that participants using OCs containing third generation progestins ( e.g., gestodene, desogestrel and norgestimate) had poorer verbal fluency compared to newer, less androgenic OCs (e.g., drospirenone).”
BackgroundKuhn, H., & Martini, M. (2022) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101821 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Griksiene, R., & Ruksenas, O.
- Venue
- Psychoneuroendocrinology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-09
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1239-1248
- ISSN
- 0306-4530 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2011880684
- Cited by
- 128
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 6.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychoneuroendocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Reproductive Health and Contraception
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Estrogen and related hormone effects
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Keywords
- oral contraceptives, mental rotation, verbal fluency, progestins, androgenic progestins, salivary estradiol, salivary progesterone, salivary testosterone, menstrual cycle phases, cognitive performance, spatial ability, mood, young women
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Affect, Contraceptives, Oral, Hormonal, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Processes, Neuropsychological Tests, Rotation, Space Perception, Task Performance and Analysis, Verbal Behavior, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
